Nº	TEMAS
1.-	Adjetivos seguidos de INFINITIVO con TO	38
2.-	ALL + Clause (Oración Subordinada)	50
3.-	Any + Comparativo	45
4.-	Artículo: Usos y Omisiones	7 - 11
5.-	Características de los Verbos Defectivos	30
6.-	Colocación de Both/All	25 - 27
7.-	Comparación del Adjetivo y del Adverbio	28 - 29
8.-	Compuestos de Some/Any/No	4
9.-	Conjunciones “ALTHOUGH/THOUGH”	46
10.-	Conjunciones IN CASE/UNLESS	48
11.-	Construcción ACUSATIVA o INFINITIVA inglesa	47
12.-	Cuadro de Pronombres	4
13.-	Diferencias entre BEEN TO/GONE TO	33
14.-	Diferencias entre Say/Tell/Speak/Talk	32
15.-	Diferencias entre Seem/Look	32 - 33
16.-	ESTILO INDIRECTO (Reported Speech)	55 - 63
17.-	Estructuras:
	It´s (about) time + Simple Past	33
	It´s no good + Gerundio (-ING)	34
18.-	Exclamaciones	47
19.-	Expresar DESEOS y LAMENTOS (Wish and If Only)	33
20.-	False Friends (Palabras que pueden confundir)	71 - 73
21.-	Formas de expresar la EDAD de una persona	71
22.-	FORMULAS PARA COMPOSICIONES (Frases hechas)	105 - 119
23.-	Género en personas, animales y cosas en inglés	81 - 84
24.-	GERUNDIO	34 - 35
25.-	GLOSARIO DE C.O.U.	70
26.-	GRAMÁTICA ESPAÑOLA	97
	Artículo determinado e indeterminado español	97
	Adjetivo español y sus clases	97
	Comparación del Adjetivo español	99
	Pronombres españoles y clases de Pronombre	100 - 102
	Conjugación española (Resumida)	103
	Correspondencias de tiempos españoles e ingleses	104
27.-	Tabla de tiempos ingleses (Todos los tiempos activos y pasivos)	104
28.-	Hacer Comparaciones	48 - 49
29.-	Impersonal “YOU”	6
30.-	INFINITIVO de Propósito o Finalidad	41
31.-	Locuciones Verbales: Would rather/sooner//Had better	19 - 20
32.-	Nombres Compuestos (Lista y significado)	90 - 91
33.-	Nombres Contables e Incontables	1- 2
34.-	Oraciones CONDICIONALES (Conjunciones: if, unless, etc.)	51 - 53
35.-	Oraciones de RELATIVO	64 - 66
36.-	Oraciones FINALES	67
37.-	Oraciones TEMPORALES	66 - 67
38.-	Pares de palabras (pareados)	96
39.-	Participio de Pasado	35
40.-	Participio de Presente	35
41.-	Participio Falso o “False Participle”	36
42.-	Participios en vez de Oraciones Subordinadas	35 - 36
43.-	Partícula “AS”	45
44.-	Partícula “EVER”	6
45.-	Partículas “QUITE/RATHER/SUCH a/an + Nombre Contable Singular	45
46.-	Partículas “SO/SUCH … THAT”	46
47..-	Partículas “TOO/ENOUGH”	46
48.-	Phrasal Verbs (lista y significados)	79 - 80
49.-	Plural de los Nombres Ingleses	11 - 12
50.-	Posición de Adverbios y Frases Adverbiales	43 - 44
51.-	Posición de los Adverbios	68
52.-	Preposiciones (básicas)	75
53.-	Preposiciones Finales o “End-prepositions”	45
54.-	Prepositional and Phrasal Verbs	41 - 42
55.-	Pronombres Reflexivos	48
56.-	Pronombres, Adjetivos y Adverbios Interrogativos con “-EVER”	47 - 48
57.-	Proverbs (Refranes)	76 - 78
58.-	Puntuación en Inglés	42
59.-	Quehaceres Domésticos	6
60.-	Significados de la palabra “LEFT”	33
61.-	Significados del verbo “To FEEL”	22
62.-	Significados según la Pronunciación	74 - 75
63.-	Sinónimos	74
64.-	Sufijos y Prefijos	69
65.-	Tail Questions o Questions-tags	50 - 51
66.-	Tiempos Verbales	12
	Presente Simple/Presente Contínuo
	Pasado Simple/Presente Perfecto
	Presente Perfecto Contínuo
	Pasado Perfecto Contínuo
67.-	Top Forty Fatal Mistakes	94 - 95
68.-	Uso de auxiliaries en afirmativa	20
69.-	Usos de Both/All/Neither/None	6
70.-	Usos de Can/Could	16 - 17
71.-	Usos de Either…or/Neither… nor	27
72.-	Usos de Going to/Will	17 - 18
73.-	Usos de May/Might	17
74.-	Usos de Much/Many/Little/Few	24 - 25
75.-	Usos de Must/Have to	15 - 16
76.-	Usos de Ought to	19
77.-	Usos de Shall/Will	14 - 15
78.-	Usos de Should/Would	18 - 19
79.-	Usos de Some/Any/No	2 - 3
80.-	Usos de Verbo “To HAVE”	5 - 6
81.-	Usos del verbo “To DO y To MAKE”	91
82.-	Usos del Verbo “To Get”	21
83.-	Verbo “NEED + -ING”	32
84.-	Verbo “To Be + INFINITIVO con TO”	41
85.-	Verbo “To Dare”	23
86.-	Verbo “To Feel like”	21 - 22
87.-	Verbo “To GET”	20 - 21
88.-	Verbo “To Happen”	21
89.-	Verbo “To Help”	22
90.-	Verbo “To Look”	23
91.-	Verbo “To Mind”	24
92.-	Verbo “To Need”	23
93.-	Verbo “To Seem”	24
94.-	Verbo “TO SUGGEST”	53
95.-	Verbo GET SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING	49
96.-	Verbo MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING	49
97.-	Verbos Irregulares Ingleses (Lista y significado)	92 - 93
98.-	Verbos Principales AUXILIARES-MODALES	30
	Must/Need/Can/May	30 - 31
99.-	Verbos que no se pueden utilizar en tiempos continuos	36 - 37
100.-	Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO con Cambio de significado	39 - 40
101.-	Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO sin Cambio de significado	38
102.-	Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO sin TO	37
103.-	Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS de Perfecto	40
104.-	Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS PASIVOS	40
105.-	Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO con TO	38
106.-	Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO sin TO o Participio de Presente	40
107.-	Verbos seguidos por HOW TO + INFINITIVO	38
108.-	Verbos Think/Suppose/Hope	33
109.-	Verbos y palabras que rigen una preposición/es determinadas	85 - 89
110.-	VOZ PASIVA	53 - 55
111.-	Wh-words + INFINITIVO con TO	45 - 46

NOMBRES CONTABLES E INCONTABLES:

Las categorias de singular y plural se aplican a todo aquello que se puede contar; son estos los que llamamos nombres contables, materiales como: girls, houses, flowers, o abstractos como: days, hours, mistakes, ideas.

Pero hay otra serie de nombres que no se pueden encuadrar dentro de unos límites numéricos - los llamamos incontables, ya sea a su vez materiales, como: silver, butter, cheese, o abstractos como: music, traffic, success. Asi como los nombres contables se pueden contar tomados en la medida de uno, dos tres etc., los incontables se pueden cuantificar con las expresiones: much, little, some, a great deal of, plenty of ... etc.

Podemos utilizar “a lot of” delante de nombres contables e incontables, pero la expresión “a large number of” sólo se utiliza ante contables.

Television companies receive a large number of letters every day.

“A great deal of” sólo se utiliza con incontables:

The psycologist had spent a great deal of time studying the problem.

Para la afirmativa se prefieren estas expresiones a “much” o “many”, dejándoles a éstos el uso exclusivo de las interrogativas y negativas, o también si son “sujeto” o “parte del sujeto” nunca “complemento”.

Television companies don't receive many letters.

The psycologist hadn't spent much time on the problem

Además de la expresiones ya vistas hay otras formas de referirnos a in contables como son:

• A piece of: news, advice, furniture ...

• A bit of: information

• A stroke of: luck (golpe de suerte)

• A matter of: common sense (un poco de sentido común).

Asi mirada la distinción entre nombres contables e incontables no ofrece dificultad; hay que tener en cuenta, sin embargo, que hay un gran número de palabras que pueden tomarse, en distintos contextos, como contables o también como incontables:

contable Incontable

Ice: helado ; hielo

Iron: plancha ; acero

Paper: periódico ; papel

Glass vaso ; cristal

Wood: bosque ; madera

Otra distinción a tener en cuenta es la que se refiere al animal como contable, y a su carne como incontable:

Ox (buey), carne: beef

Calf (ternera) carne: veal

Sheep (oveja) carne: mutton

Pig or swine (cerdo)  carne: pork

Desde el punto de vista meramente lógico, podríamos deducir que, puesto que los nombres incontables denotan lo que no podemos contar, las categorías de singular y plural no les son aplicables; sin embargo hay muchos nombres incontables que son plurales por su forma:

sweets (caramelos) rickets (el raquitismo)

weeds (malas hierbas) hysterics (la histeria)

goods (mercancias) measles (el sarampión)

ashes (cenizas)

Otro grupo de nombres son los terminados en -ics, que denotan materias:

mathematics - matemáticas

politics - política

statistics - estadística

Tanto este grupo de nombres como el anterior pueden ir seguidos de un verbo en singular o en plural:

Measles is/are very infectious

Politics don´t/doesn't interest me.

USOS DE SOME, ANY y NO

Some y any son adjetivos o pronombres indefinidos que se emplean con sustantivos incontables en singular y con sustantivos plurales contables, o sustituyendo a estos mismos sustantivos.

Some: Con nombres incontables en singular equivale al partitivo francés y tiene el significado de un poco (de), algo (de), o puede prescindirse de su traducción en español. Con los nombres contables en plural significa algunos/as:

There is some water in the jug.

I have some English books at home.

Como pronombre sustituye a nombres incontables en singular y a contables en plural a los que se ha mencionado previamente. Significa: un poco, algo, algunos/as:

I like some milk. I feel like drinking some now.

You need many pins for that. I can lend you some if you want.

Por regla general el uso de some se limita a oraciones afirmativas. En las oraciones interrogativas y negativas, detrás de if, hardly, barely, scarcely se emplea any con los mismos significados de some:

Is there any water in the glass?

Are there any books on the table?

I haven't any money left.

There is hardly any sugar.

There are scarcely any papers on the floor.

If you want any help, let me know.

Sólo si la pregunta implica una invitación u ofrecimiento, o si se espera una respuesta afirmativa, se puede emplear some en las oraciones interrogativas:

Would you like some more tea? 

Did he buy some new books?

Se emplea:

En ocasiones con los nombres contables tiene el valor de plural del artículo indeterminado a:

Come with me and I'll show you some English books I bought.

I have bought some too.

There is some milk in that glass; I'll have some.

Cuando ofrecemos algo, para dar a este ofreciemiento más fuerza:

Would you like some tea?

En las preguntas cuando esperamos que la respuesta sea afirmativa:

He has some tea already, hasn't he?

Para expresar indiferencia al referirnos a una persona, o para indicar irritación:

Some man came and told me the most stupid story.

Some stupid boy must have broken this lamp.

Any: Acompaña o sustituye también a nombres incontables en singular y a contables en plural:

Se emplea:

Sustituyendo a some en las oraciones interrogativas:

Is there any wine in the bottle?

Have you got nay books here?

En las oraciones negativas y en las que tienen valor negativo a causa de las expresiones: hardly, barely, scarcely, estas expresiones tienen matiz negativo:

There isn't any bread at home.

He has hardly any money.

You haven't any paper.

En las oraciones condicionales detrás de if especialmente si creemos que la condición no se va a cumplir:

If I see any of your friends I'll tell them to meet you at the cinema.

En oraciones que expresan duda:

I doubt whether they will have any gin at home.

En oraciones afirmativas con valor distinto de some. Significa cualquiera no importa cuál:

Don't worry; any book will do.

NO: Se emplea en oraciones afirmativas para expresar negación. Su valor es similar al de any, como adjetivo, con el verbo en forma negativa:

I haven't any money = I have no maney.

There aren't any stamps = There are no stamps.

COMPUESTOS DE SOME, ANY, NO

FORM	ASSERTIVE	NON-ASSERTIVE	NEGATIVE
VERB	Affirmative	Negative	Affirmative
Personas	someone somebody	Anyone Anybody	no-one nobody
Cosas	something	Anything	nothing
Lugar	somewhere	Anywhere	nowhere
	sometimes	Ever	never
	somehow	in any way	in no way
	already	Any more/any longer	no more/no longer
	still	Yet	No form

There is somebody with you.

Don't give him anything before lunch.

It must be somewhere in the class.

There aren't any tourists here this summer.

There was nobody at home.

EVERY solo tiene la forma ASSERTIVE

FORM	ASSERTIVE
VERB	Affirmative
	Everybody
	Everyone
	Everything
	Everywhere

PRONOMBRES PERSONALES, POSESIVOS Y REFLEXIVOS

PERSONALES		POSESIVOS		REFLEXIVOS
Sujeto	Complemento	Adjetivos	Pronombres	Pronombres
I	me	my	mine	myself
you	you	your	yours	yourself
he	him	his	his	himself
she	her	her	hers	herself
it	it	its	its?	itself
we	us	our	ours	ourselves
you	you	your	yours	yourselves
they	them	their	theirs	themselves

PRONOMBRES RECÍPROCOS

• Each other: (uno a atro) se (entre dos personas o cosas)

• One another: (unos a otros) se (entre más de dos)

USOS DEL VERBO TO HAVE

Además del uso más frecuente de “have” que es la de auxiliar en la formación de los tiempos compuestos de cualquier verbo, tiene otros usos:

1.- Significado de TENER, POSEER

She has a black cat.

Lo encontramos también significando lo mismo en la forma “have got”

Have you got a cigarette?

Con este significado no usamos normalmente el auxiliar “do” para la forma negativa e interrogativa, sobre todo si la posesión a la que nos referimos es en el momento en que hablamos:

You have a lot of maney to buy that.

You haven't much money to buy that.

Si la posesión no es en este momento, sino de vez en cuando se pone los auxiliares do/does/did para formar la ineterrogativa y negativa:

He doesn't usually have more than one pound in his pocket.

Por supuesto si la forma que empleamos es “have got” nunca se puede utilizar “do”:En afirmativa suele emplearse en inglés británico la estructura HAVE GOT, así  “have” hace la interrogativa y negativa mientras que “got” actua como comodín:

I have got a car

2.- Obligación TENER QUE

El verbo “to have” seguido de infinitivo con “to” indica Obligación y significa “tener que” y este es el verbo que suple las deficiencias de “must”. Necesita de auxiliares para formar la interrogativa y negativa. Si se utiliza el comodín “got to” el que hace la interrogativa y negativa es “have”:

I have to leave. I have got to leave I must leave

Have you got to leave? Do you have to leave?

La negativa e interrogativa de “have to” puede hacerse de dos formas: con o sin “do”; es más frecuente la forma con “do” sobre todo en presente:

Have you to leave? Do you have to leave? (mejor)

3.- Uso Causativo

Este uso se utiliza cuando se quiere expresar que alguien ha hecho algo por uno. La estructura es “To HAVE/GET + Objeto + past participle. Usamos esta construcción cuando queremos dar la idea de que no es el sujeto el que realiza la acción, sino que más bien recae sobre sí mismo; por tanto tiene significado pasivo.Para hacer la negativa e interrogativa necesita también de auxiliares:

I had my car washed yesterday I had my hair cut yesterday.

I didn´t have my car washed yesterday.

He had his windows cleaned last Saturday.

4.- Con el sigificado de tomar, recibir, experimentar, comer etc.

En este uso la palabra que acompaña al verbo “have” es su complemento directo, por tanto actua como un verbo léxico u ordinario. También necesita de auxiliares ara formar la interrogativa y negativa:

I had a cup of coffee at six o'clock (tomé).

I had a present from Charle (recibí).

I had a lovely time with him (experimenté).

To have a bath; to have a shower; to have breakfast.

5.- Acabar de + infinitivo: To have just + past participle

Indica que una acción acaba de desarrollarse hace un instante:

He has just arrived home.

QUEHACERES DOMÉSTICOS (Chores)

TO DO + artículo determinado + -ING, excepto = To make the beds

Ej: Mrs Wildes cooks the meals every day.

Mrs Wildes does the cooking every day.

To do the washing = lavar la ropa, hacer la colada

To do the washing-up = lavar los platos

To do the cleaning = limpiar la casa.

To do the spring cleaning = limpiar la casa a fondo.

To do the gardening = trabajar en el jardín

etc.

BOTH / ALL / NEITHER / NONE

Both - ambos, los dos

All - más de dos

Neither - ninguno (de dos)

None - ninguno (más de dos)

both ... and - tanto ... como

neither ... nor - ni ... ni

Both, All, None - rigen el verbo en plural.

IMPERSONAL: YOU

You equivale al impersonal español uno

Ej: Uno sale de casa y luego no vuelve.

PARTÍCULA: “EVER”

Significa: alguna vez

Hardly ever - casi nunca; puesto que en inglés no se pueden poner dos partículas negativas juntas; la partícula hardly tiene matiz negativo por tanto no se puede poner never.

EVER se emplea en preguntas con el significado de alguna vez; y con el superlativo relativo significa jamás.

Preguntas: Have you ever been to London?

Yes, several times.

No, never

Superlativos: He is the most intelligent man I have (I've) ever seen.

EL ARTÍCULO

El artículo determinado en inglés se pone cuando se habla de un sustantivo en concreto, determinado, no en sentido general.

The boy next door to us is full of mischief

The book that you gave me is very interesting

En ambos ejemplos hay algo que define a la persona o cosa a que nos referimos. En el primer caso es next door to us y en el segundo es that you gave me. Esta definición del obejto o la persona de quién hablamos nos la puede dar la pregunta: WHAT? o la pregunta WHICH?, y ésto ocurre en singular y plural:

The animals I saw were beautiful. What animals? Those I saw (not all animals).

The dogs in your farm don't like meat. Which dogs? The ones you have in your farm.

La determinación se puede expresar por medio de una oración de ralativo (The book that you gave me) o por un complemento con preposición (The dogs in your farm)

The carpet of the dining-room; The house near the church.

Si hablamos de algo en sentido general utilizamos el artículo indeterminado si la persona o cosa de que hablamos es singular y nada si es plural:

A play by Shakespeare is something interesting to be seen.

Films are good entertainment.

Usos del Artículo Determinado:

- Cuando nos referimos a algo de lo que sólo existe un ejemplar:

The sky, the earth, the moon.

- Cuando empleamos el superlativo relativo, pero no el absoluto:

This is the most interesting poem I have read.

pero es: It is most interesting.

- Con los nombres de mares, rios y oceanos:

the Thames, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Mediterranean etc.

- Con los nombres de cordilleras y archipiélagos, pero no con los nombres de mantañas y de una sóla isla:

The Canary Islands, the Alps, the Grampians

pero es: Mont Balnc, Sicily.

-Con los números ordinales en títulos honoríficos:

Elisabeth the Second (Elisabeth II), Charles V (Charles the Fifth).

- Con los nombres de trenes, barcos y aviones famosos:

The Queen Mary, The Arrow, the Concorde

- Con nombres de paises que o son plurales o están formados por más de una entidad territorial:

The United States, The United Kingdom, The Netherlands;

pero no Spain, France, Germany, Italy.

- Con las palabras theatre, cinema, movies, pictures, opera, ballet ... cuando se utilizan como lugar de esparcimiento:

I went to the cinema last week, We should go to the ballet.

- Cuando se hace referencia a una cosa que ya se ha citado:

We bought a house and an apartment. The house is not far from the sea.

- Con los adjetivos cuando se quieren sustantivar, se convierten por medio del artículo en nombres plurales:

The poor are happier than the rich.

En singular: the poor man.

- Se emplea el artículo determinado en con el comparativo para decir que algo aumneta o disminuye:

The more you giove him the more he wants.

El artículo indeterminado se emplea delante de los nombres discontinuos (contables) que van en singular. El artículo indeterminado no tiene plural . Cuando en singular tiene el valor de 1 haciéndo énfasis en la cantidad, su plural puede ser some, a few etc.

Usos del artículo indeterminado:

- Con el significado de “uno cualquiera”:

I would like to have a fur coat.

- Con valor distributivo en expresiones de tiempo y con medidas:

Peter comes twice a year. Cheese costs 90p a kilo

- Delante de cantidades: hundred, thousand, million, dozen:

He knows a hundred English words.

- Con apellidos de personas no identificadas, equivalente al español: un tal:

A Mr White came to see you

- Con nombres de profesiones y religiones:

She is a student. I am a teacher.

He became a Protestant.

- Con sustantivos cuando queremos rferirnos a ellos en general:

A car is a useful thing.

- Con las expresiones: What a .. !; Such a ... !; Quite a ... !; Rather a ... ! + nombres contables en singular: What a pity; it´s quite a good book.

It was such a nuisance. I read quite an interesting story !

Omisión de los dos artículos:

- Con las palabras: school, church, prison, jail, bed, hospital ... cuando se utilizan para el fin para el que se hiceron:

We go to school everyday. I feel tired; I'm going to bed

Peter stole a car and he is in prison now

We go to school at 8.30 every morning.

- Con nombres abstractos o nombres concretos no determinados ni limitados:

Happiness, Freedom

Happiness is what I long for.

- Con los nombres de idiomas, deportes, calles, comidas:

I speak Italian, Spanish.

I play football, tennis, basketball.

I have breakfast, dinner, supper.

- Con los días de la semana, que en su lugar llevan “on”:

On Monday, On Friday.

- No se usa con los nombres propios aunque formen parte de un genitivo sajón, al igual que con Mr, Mrs, Miss:

Mary´s teacher lives far from here.

Mary's scarf; Arthur´s car;

Mr Smithers; Mr Harrison.

- Con las palabras: next y last, ciando nos referimos al período inmediatamente posterior o anterior al que estamos:

Mary left home last week.

I see you next Friday

pero I met your brother the last week I spent in London (no tiene por qué ser la semana pasada).

USES OF “A” / “AN”

With a subject complement

He is a doctor

Mr Smith became an engineer

I was made a director

She remained spinster

She found herself a widow

In distributive phrases (a = each)

The cloth costs five pounds a yard

I take this medicine twice a day

These flowers cost a pound a dozen

Coal costs ten pounds a ton

Coffee is sixpence a cup

With complements introduced by “AS” and “FOR”

You must fulfil your duties as a son

I wish we had you for a teacher

In expressions of drgree, measurement, number

He is not as rich a man as you

He lives in too expensive a manner

The waiter has quite a hard time

This is rather a long street

I studied for half an hour

He serves a hundred people

He won a hundred pounds

In exclamations with “WHAT”, and “SUCH”

What a pity!

What a nice day!

It is such a pity!

It is such a nice day!

He has such a different life!

After “WITH” and “WITHOUT”

He wrote with a pen

There is no rose without a thorn

In emphatic negatives

I haven´t a penny!

I can´t see a thing!

I don´t understand a word!

In adverbial phrases

In On As

to be in a hurry on a large scale as a rule

to speak in a low voice on an average

In some idioms

to have a right to make a noise to make a fortune

“A certain”

a certain man

“A”, “ONE”

Give me a book = any book

Give me one book = one, not two

Monday is a weekday = one of several

He entered a restaurant one day = one certain day

Just a moment, sir = unemphatic

Just one moment, sir = emphatic

USE and OMISSION of “THE”

Generic and determined nouns

Generic Determined nouns

I admired courage I admired the courage of poor people

Good books are rare The good books I bought are rare

We pray for peace We pray for the peace of the world

Happiness does not depend on money The happiness of most people does not

depend on the money they have

He spends his money on pleasure He spends his money on the pleasures

of food

They suffered from cold and hunger The cold and hunger they suffered was

intense

He was sent to prison He was sent to the new prison

They go to school They go to the school in that street

Omitted before titles, honorifics, and some proper names

Persons Places

Mr Brown Cairo

Captain Brawn Mecca

Queen Elisabeth Peru

King George Canada

Pope Pius Lake Superior

Omitted before the names of languages, games, days, meals, streets

English football Monday breakfast Oxford Street

French tennis Tuesday lunch Piccadilly Circus

German cricket Wednesday tea Trafalgar Square

Russian rugby Thursday dinner Mount Avenue

Italian hockey Friday supper Edgware Road

Next, last, the next, the last

next, last the next, the last

I will meet you next week He fell ill and died the next week

I returned from my holiday last week This is the last week of the year

EL PLURAL DE LOS NOMBRES

La Regla General: El plural de los nombres se forma añadiendo “S” al singular.

Excepciones:

- Los sustantivos terminados en -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x añaden la terminación -es para formar el plural y adquieren así una sílaba más:

Glass - glasses, Church - churches; box - boxes.

- Los que terminan en -o añaden también -es, excepto si son nombres extranjeros o apocopados (cortos):

potato - potatoes; negro - negroes; piano - pianos; photo -photos.

- Los que terminan en -f o en -fe, cambian la “f” por “v” y añaden la terminación -es:

wolf -wolves; wife - wives; life - lives.

excepto: handkerchief - handkerchiefs; cliff - cliffs

- Los que acaban en -y si va ésta precedida de consonante, cambia a “i” latina y añade -es, pero si va precedida de vocal, sigue la regla general, añade -s:

lady - ladies; baby - babies

boy - boys; toy - toys

- Las palabras latinas y griegas forman el plural según las reglas del latín o del griego:

crisis - crises; thesis - theses; datum - data; radius - radii

Si son palabras de uso muy frecuente se siguen las reglas del inglés:

gymnasium - gymnasiums (gym - gyms).

6. - Finalmente tenemos que destacar que hay una serie de sustantivos que no siguen estas reglas. Al referirnos a ellos hablamos de plurales irregulares:

man - men; woman - women; foot - feet; tooth - teeth; mouse - mice; loose - lice; goose - geese; child - children.

En inglés antiguo y sobre todo en textos religiosos se encuentra el plural brethen, de brother, que hoy está practicamente en desuso.

Plurales de nombres compuestos:

- En general se pone en plural el último elemento, pero si “man” o “woman” son el primer elemento del compuesto, ambos se ponen en plural:

teapot - teapots; manservant - menservants; raincoat - raincoats.

- Cuando el compuesto está formado por otros elementos y nombres (por ejemplo, preposiciones o adverbios) sólo se pone en plural el nombre:

passer-by - passers-by; looker-on - lookers-on.

- Si el segundo elemento del compuesto es un adjetivo, solo se pone en plural el primero:

court-martial - courts-martial; mouthful - mouthfuls;

La excepción a esta regla es que los nombres que terminan en el sufijo -ful (del adjetivo full) forman el plural añadiendo -s.

handful - handfuls; mouthful - mouthfuls.

TIEMPOS VERBALES

Presente Simple, Presente Continuo.-

El Presente Simple o habitual se utiliza con acciones que estamos haciendo constantemente; hábitos en el presente:

I get up at 7 o'clock every day.

El Presente Continuo se utiliza con acciones que estamos realizando en el momento en que hablamos, y se sobreentiende la partícula NOW:

I am reading a book.

Tanto el Presente Simple como el Presente Continuo tienen valor de futuro. En caso del Presente Simple, el valor de futuro lo da la expresión temporal que le acompaña:

The train leaves the station at 8 o'clock in the evening.

El Presente Continuo tiene valor de futuro cierto a diferencia de shall o will (que indican futuro simplemente) o la forma going to (que indica futuro próximo o premeditado):

Tomorrow I´m playing tennis.

Pasado Simple.-

Se emplea para acciónes que empezaron en el pasado y terminaron en un momento del pasado, este momento puede estar expresado o puede sobreentenderse:

They came last night. He joined the army in 1977.

He sent me a present last week. I bought this in America.

También se em`plea el pasado simple oara hacer preguntas sobre cosas que se sabe que terminaron en un momento determinado del pasado:

When did you graduate? Where did you get that prize?

Otro uso del pasado simple es para referirnos a costumbres que se tenían en el pasado, o para acciones que van acompañadas de los adverbios: sometimes, never, often, always etc.; también con expresiones de tiempo que indican repetición: once a week, three times a month, on Mondays, every Friday night etc.:

He always went to school by bus.

He visited his father once a month.

John never drank wine.

Presente Perfecto.-

Se emplea para hablar de una acción, que si bien comenzó en el pasado, no se ha terminado aún o en cierto modo tiene relacón con el momento actual, y se emplea por tanto, con expresiones de tiempo no terminado. Suele emplearse con: this year, this morning, this summer, today etc.:

I have eaten quite a lot today. We have written each other five times this month.

El Present Perfect es un tiempo que se emplea para referirnos a acciones que acaban de terminar hace un instante. En inglés esta proximidad del momento en que se ha terminado una acción se expresa por medio de just y el Present Perfect. Su traducción al español es: ACABAR DE + INFINITIVO:

I have just seen your mother in the street. (Acabo de ver a tu madre ...)

We have just moved to a new house.

También se emplea este tiempo para acciones pasadas cuando no se da el momento en que terminaron. Parece como si la idea de tiempo no terminado la tuviese que dar la vida de uno. Al menos esto facilita el saber emplear este tiempo:

She has been to France many times (in her life).

I have met lost of clever people in my life.

Si las acciones a las que hacemos referencia van acompañadas de expresiones como: already, lately, recently, también se emplea el Presente Perfecto si estas acciones comenzaron en el pasado:

We haven´t seen him yet. I haven´t already been there.

We haven´t heard much of you recently.

Por último se emplea este tiempo para hacer preguntas sobre el pasado cuando queremos saber si algo ha ocurrido alguna vez. En inglés se utiliza el adverbio interrogativo EVER:

Have you ever seen anything like that? Has he ever tried to learn English properly?

Presente Perfecto Continuo.-

Tiene tres usos:

- Acciones que empezaron en el pasado, continuan en el presente o acaban de terminar:

Arthur has been studying very hard.

- También se usa con expresiones com: recently, this morning, today etc. que son expresiones de tiempo no terminado:

I have been waiting for you this morning.

- Se usa con las partículas: How long ......? y las contestaciones con: Since y For.

How long have you been living here? I've been living here since January.

Pasado Perfecto Continuo.-

Tres usos:

- Reemplaza al Presente Perfecto Continuo cuando nos referimos al pasado:

Arthur is tired because he has been studying very hard. (Present)

Arthur was tired because he had been studying very hard. (Past)

- También se usa en oraciones temporales con acciones anteriores a otra acción pasada:

After Arthur had been driving for six months, he found it quite easy.

- En el Estilo Indirecto como pasado (backshif) del Presente Perfecto Continuo:

“Have you been studying English long?”

He asked me if I had been studying English long.

Usos de shall y will.-

Son estos dos verbos especiales que se emplean para formar el futuro de los demás verbos. Son, pues, auxiliares de tiempo.

El futuro en inglés, cuando lo único que queremos expresar es que algo va a tener lugar, se construye con shall para la primera persona de singular o plural y will para las demás, seguidos de infinitivo sin to del verbo que conjugamos:

I shall work They will work

La contracción de la afirmativa es ´ll para todas las personas, y la contracción de la negativa es shan´t o won´t.

Pero no siempre se utilizan estos verbos para expresar simplemente el futuro. Hay una serie de casos en que el futuro se tiñe de un matiz que puede ser de mandato, súplica, sugerencia etc.:

SHALL:

- Cuando se emplea con las primeras personas y terceras puede expresar ofrecimiento en el presente o en el futuro: (Se traduce al español po Querer que + subjuntivo)

Shall I help you? Shall my wife take you home?

- Con la segunda o tercera personas expresa promesa o amenaza:

You shall have a present if you work hard.

My wife shall help you as soon as she comes.

- Con todas las personas se emplea shall en las subordinadas finales introducidas por SO THAT, para expresar determinación en el presente o en el futuro:

My wife drives very slowly so that I shall not be afraid.

WILL:

- Con todas las personas, si el énfasis recae sobre el, indica determinación o propósito:

I will not go out (I am determined to stay at home)

- Si no se le dá énfasis, expresa deseo de hacer algo, sobre todo de hacerlo en el presente, con todas las personas:

If he is hungry I will give him something to eat.

- Con la segunda persona suele indicar invitación o súplica, si se emplea en la forma interrogativa: (Se traduce al español por Querer + infinitivo)

Will you close the window, please? Will you do me a favour, please?

- Con todas las personas puede indicar hábito en el presente:

She will sit there for hours waiting for her son.

- Con la segunda y tercera personas expresa también deducción:

He will be there by now.

Usos de MUST y HAVE TO

MUST: Esta es la forma única de un verbo defectivo que no tiene mas que presente de indicativo. Su tercera persona no tiene -s y rige siempre infinitivo sin to. La forma contracta de la negativa es mustn't.

Las formas que le faltan a este verbo, que son practicamente todas, se pueden suplir con las expresiones: TO HAVE TO o TO BE TO (tener que).

Must puede expresar:

- Obligación: Candidates must answer all the questions.

- Necesidad 8según la idea del hablante): He must leave early tomorrow morning.

- Suposición (Deducción): She must be at least forty.

- Consejo o recomendación (en tono más fuerte que should):

You will have to have your hair cut before you join the army.

Must puede anteceder a un infinitivo de perefecto. Indica entónces una suposición (deducción) pasada por parte del hablante:

It must have been a shock to him.

Have to: Lo empleamos normalmente para completar la conjugación de must. Para formar la negativa e interrogativa empleamos do, does, did

Do you have to go now? Did you have to buy a stamp?

Con el mismo significado de to have to podemos usar to have got to:

I have got to go = I must go. Have you got to go? = Must you go?

En el presente de indicativo, que también puede utilizarse have to, hay frecuentemente una diferencia de significado entre esta forma y must. MUST expresa obligación desde el punto de vista del que habla y HAVE TO, como en los otros tiempos, desde el exterior, es decir, que la obligación es externa.

Para expresar ausencia de obligación o de necesidad, es decir, lo opuesto a MUST, se emplea a veces la forma NEED NOT (needn´t). Otras alternativas son: haven´t got to, don´t have to, don´t need to.

Usos de CAN y COULD

Can: Es otro verbo defectivo. Sus formas son:

Presente: CAN Futuro: CAN Pasado y Condicional: COULD

Las contracciones son: can´t o cannot y couldn´t

Can puede expresar:

- PERMISO: (para pedirlo o concederlo):

Can I speak to you for a moment? You can speak to the patient if you wish.

Con más énfasis en la idea de permiso usariamos COULD o MAY o MIGHT

Could I speak to you for a moment, please?

- POSIBILIDAD:

You can come if you want to.

Para expresar posibilidad en el futuro no podemos utilizar CAN; tenemos que utilizar TO BE ABLE TO o el giro MANAGE TO:

- HABILIDAD o CAPACIDAD:

Can you type? (Sabes escribir a máquina?)

MANAGE TO o TO BE ABLE TO no expresa capacidad del sujeto, sino más bien que la acción ha sido llevada a término o realizada totalmente:

Although he was hurt, he managed/he was able to explain the accident.

- SUPOSICIÓN: (negativa)

He can´t be forty. It couldn´t be her husband; he is died two years ago.

TO BE ABLE TO es el verbo que se emplea para suplir los tiempos que le faltan a CAN. Son todos los compuestos (porque no tiene participio pasado), el futuro y el condicional (porque no tiene infinitivo).

Usos de MAY y MIGHT

May: Es otro verbo defectivo. Sus formas son:

Presente: MAY Futuro: MAY Pasado y Condicional: MIGHT

Las contracciones de las formas negativas son: mayn´t y mightn´t.

May expresa permiso, lo mismo en forma interrogativa que negativa:

You may open the window if you are feeling hot.

May y Might pueden expresar también:

- POSIBILIDAD: He may/might come tomorrow.

En el estilo indirecto utilizamos might si el verbo principal está en pasado:

He said that he might come.

- SUPOSICIÓN en el pasado: si usamos may/might seguidos de infinitivo de perfecto:

The other road might have been better.

- Podemos usar ambos verbos en las oraciones condicionales:

If you called him he might answer back.

- Usamos MAY o MIGHT seguidos de as well para expresar intencionalidad vaga:

He might as well apply for the job (he doesn´t care about it.)

Especulaciones sobre el pasado con MIGHT

Para una posibilidad pasada. En esta estructura MIGHT es sinónimo de MAY + infinitivo de perfecto:

The Sound of Music might have finished by now.

The Sound of Music may have finished by now.

Puede ponerse en las oraciones condicionales (tipo 3, igual que would have):

If he had gone to the agency earlier, there might have been more choice.

En estilo indirecto como tiempo pasado de MAY:

He admitted that he might have made a mistake.

Se puede utilizar en “quejas”:

I didn´t know her husband had died. You might have told me!

Usos de GOING TO o WILL

Going to: Esta formas seguida de un infinitivo se utiliza en inglés para acciones futuras que son premeditadas y que de un modo u otro necesitan una preparación para llevarlas a cabo. A veces, aunque no siempre, van acompañadas de una expresión de tiempo:

I'm going to ring my brother up. I need some soap because I´m going to wash up

Peter has bought some paint because he's going to paint his bedroom.

Will: Se emplea para acciones futuras no premeditadas. Generalmente se dice que se utiliza para acciones que no necesitan preparación, que son expontáneas:

Give your coat. I'll take it to my room.

That cake is very good; I will have some more.

La distinción no es tan clara como a simple vista parece. Algunas gramáticas dan un ejemplo como el que vamos a citar, pero no siempre que hablamos nos vamos a encontrar con casos tan claros:

Peter has sold his car. Yes, he´s going to buy a new car. (La preparación está en el hecho que Pedro ha vendido el coche viejo previamente para comprar después otro nuevo)

As Peter has sold his car I will buy him a new one. (No hay nada premeditado. El hecho de que Pedro haya vendido el coche me ha hecho pensar en regalarle uno nuevo).

Will se emplea sin poder ser sustituido por la forma going to en las oraciones condicionales o en las subordinadas temporales, yendo will en la oración principal:

If you come with me I will do some shopping.

También hay que emplear will con los verbos que no tienen forma progresiva o continua: believe, understand, know etc. Pero excepcionalemente con estos verbos se puede emplear going to aunque no es normal.

Usos de SHOULD y WOULD

Should: Aparte de ser auxiliar de condicional puede expresar deber (leve), consejo o recomendación, al igual que ought to.

We should see the doctor if you aren´t feeling well.

- Se suele usar en oraciones completivas con that detrás de verbos como: suggest, decide etc.:

He suggested that I should see a lawyer.

- También se emplea con sentido final detrás de las conjunciones so that, in order that, in case etc.:

He banged the door so that someone should hear him.

- En el estilo indirecto sustituye a shall:

He asked, “Shall I help you?

He asked whether he should help me.

- Se suele usar también detrás de ciertos adjetivos que expresan placer, sorpresa, disgusto etc.:

It is amazing that she should have laughed at you!

It is fair that your parents should hear from you.

Would: Aparte de ser también auxiliar de condicional, es el equivalente de will con referencia al pasado cuando will se usa como futuro ordinario, normal:

He knows he will be late He knew he would be late.

- Se usa en lugar del verbo want cuando queremos pedir algo de forma educada:

I want to see Mr Steele I would like to see Mr Steele

- También lo usamos para expresar ruego:

Would you open the window?

- Indica también hábito o repetición:

She would sit there for hours waiting for her son.

- Would seguido de rather o sooner más infinitivo sin to expresa PREFERENCIA:

I would rather walk than sit.

- Al igual que used to, sirve para describir hábitos pasados. Se utiliza especialmente en inglés escrito:

During the weekend he would see him in his flat going through the paper.

I´d often go off camping at weekends when I was young.

Usos de OUGHT TO

Ought to es un verbo defectivo que rige infinitivo sin to puesto que la partícula to pertenece al verbo. Tiene una forma única: ought to para todas las personas. Ought to puede utilizarse como presente, pasado y futuro y expresa:

- Obligación, pero no por parte del hablante (como must), ni de tipo externo (como have to), sino como un simple recuerdo o llamada a la atención por parte del hablante; en este sentido es mucho menos enfático que must y muy similar a la idea que expresa should:

You should not tell lies. You ought not to tell lies.

- También se puede emplear expresando consejo, igualmente en este caso con menos énfasis que must:

You ought to read this book.

- Ought to puede ir seguido de infinitivo de perfecto, igual que should para lamentar algo que no se realizó:

I can´t do anything for you now. You ought to have told me yesterday afternoon.

Las locuciones verbales WOULD RATHER/SOONER y HAD BETTER

Would rather o sooner: expresa preferencia entre dos cosas, por tanto se traduce por preferiría esto a aquello (entre dos acciones)

I´d rather go than stay

Si es el mismo sujeto en las dos acciones:

• Va seguido por infinitivo de presente sin to para acciones presentes o futuras:

I´d rather study English.

• Va seguido por infinitivo de perfecto sin to cuando se refiere a acciones pasadas:

I´d rather have gone to the cinema yesterday

Cuando son sujetos diferentes en las acciones:

• Va seguido de simple past para referirse a presente o futuro:

I´d rather Tom went

• Va seguido de past perfect al rferirse a acciones pasadas:

I´d rather Tom have gone yesterday.

Had better significa será/sería mejor para el sujeto que sea:

• Va seguido de infinitivo de presente sin to para referirse a presente o futuro:

I´d better go

• Va seguido de infinitivo de perfecto sin to para referirse al pasado:

I´d better have gone

• Es equivalente a la estructura It would be better for me, you, him ... to ...

Nota: Estas locuciones van siempre seguidas por INFINITIVO sin TO

Uso de “auxiliares” en afirmativa

• Se pueden usar “los auxiliares” en afirmativas como: mandatos, invitaciones, oraciones enunciativas para dar más énfasis:

Come on, Arthur! Do open the door!

• En inglés hablado se acentúa el auxiliar, y en inglés escrito puede aparecer subrayado, en cursiva o en negrita, para resaltarlo:

John can´t come tomorrow.

-But he can (he told me so)

The Verb “TO GET”

= to obtain to receive	I got some tickets for the theatre. What time do you get the mail every day?
= to become	He got very angry when the lawyer came. We get older every day.
= movement	The news got about that John had gone abroad. How are you getting along? The prisoners got away by climbing the walls. I shall be out this morning but I shall get back by 12 o'clock
GET INTO	The bad boy is always getting into trouble.
GET ON	I always get on the bus here to get home. I´m getting on well at school. c) I´m getting on well with my parents.
GET OFF	I always get off the bus at the end of my journey.
GET OUT	The teacher told the children to get out their books. After being ill, you must get out into the fresh air and the sunshine.
GET OVER	I had a grave (serious) illness but finally I got over it.
GET TO	The train gets to London at 3 o'clock.
GET UP	I get up at 7 o'clock every morning.
GET THROUGH	He got through his work in three hours. He got through his examination.

Usos de verbo to GET

El uso básico del verbo get es obtener, conseguir:

Has Mary got a job yet?

get + past participle o adjective, significa become (hacerse, llegar a ser); en este caso verbaliza al participio o al adjetivo

ill = enfermo to get ill = enfermar

tired = cansado to get tired = cansarse

wet = mojado to get wet = mojarse

married = casado to get married to = casarse con

get + object + past participle: uso causativo (al igual que have + object + past participle); significa que alguien hace algo por uno, por tanto tiene significado pasivo):

I must get my hair cut. I must have my hair cut

have got + infinitivo con to: indica obligación lo mismo que have to:

I´ve got to go now.

get to: significa llegar a un sitio (cubierto), normalmente a una estación de tren:

What time do we get to London?

The Verb “TO HAPPEN”

HAPPEN to somebody or something What has happened to John. A strange thing happened to me. What has happened to my pen? What has happened to this radio?	Where is he? It´s not here. It doesn´t work.
HAPPEN to + infinitive I happen to know the answer. John happened to be here.	= I know it by chance. = John was there by chance.
As it HAPPEN; Whatever HAPPENS As it happens, I know the answer. You must tell the truth whatever happens	= By chance, I know it.

The Verb “TO FEEL LIKE”

+ NOUN This morning I feel like the strongest man in the world. This morning I feel like a long way	= I feel that I am ... = I want to have ...
+ -ING This morning I feel like walking. Do you feel like playing cards?	= I want to walk. = Do you want to play ...?
+ IT This morning I´m not going to work because I don´t feel like it.	= because I don´t want to.
+ ANYTHING This morning I don´t feel like anything.	=I don´t want to eat or drink anything.

Significados de to FEEL

Con adjetivos: estar en un estado emocional o físico:

Arthur had felt terrible all day.

Con adjetivos cuando el sujeto es una parte del cuerpo significa dar la impresión:

His chest felt painful

Con objetos significa tocar, palpar:

Mary felt his forehead.

Feel like = “want”, en coloquial significa apetecer, dar la gana. Rige gerundio.

I don´t feel like going to Baiona tomorrow.

Concompletivas de “that” significa tener una opinión, creer:

I feel that we may have made a mistake.

The Verb “TO HELP”

1.- HELP SOMEONE (TO) INFINITIVE:

Arthur Mrs Steele collect the dirty glasses Sheila helped Mrs Steele (to) do the washing up. Mr Smithers Mrs Harrison move the chairs and tables.

2.- With the meaning of remedy, AVOID:

I cannot (can´t) help coughing I cannot (can´t) be helped

3.- When HELP is needed in a emergengy:

Help! Yelled the trapped children.

4.- HELP is frequently used in informal contexts:

Help your mother; help with the housework; Help Father with the gardening; help with the washing up.

The Verb “TO NEED”

+NOUN	+ INFINITIVE with TO	+ INFINITIVE without TO
I need a friend. I don´t need friends. Do you need friends?	I need to go. I do not need to go. Do you need to go?	I need not (needn´t) go Need you go?

The Verb “TO DARE”

+ PERSONAL OBJECT	+ INFINITIVE with TO	+ INFINITIVE without TO
I dare you to go. He dared me to sing. He dared us to say anything.	I dare to go. I do not dare to go. Do you dare to go?	I dare not (daren´t) go Dare you go?

The Verb “TO LOOK”

a) To LOOK + adjective = to seem, appear He looks happy They look sad John looks tired He didn´t look old		= He seems happy. = They seem sad. = John appears tired. = He didn´t appear old.
To LOOK LIKE + Noun = to resemble, The soldier looked like a boy He looks like a policeman I look like my father		to have the appearance of = He had the appearance of a boy. = He has the appearance of a policeman. = I resemble my father.
Look here! Look out! He looked up He looked down I will look in on you I looked away Look at seek be careful examine Look up to Look down on	= Look at this! Listen! = Be careful! = He raised his eyes. = He dropped his eyes. = I will visit you. = I looked in another direction Look at your book! Look for your book! Look out for the traffic. Look into the problem! = admire = despise		= Mira! = Cuidado! = levantar = bajar = visitar = desviar Look at it! Look for it! Look out for it! Look into it! Children should look up to their parents. I look down on liars.

The Verb “TO SEEM”

1.- SEEM TO / SEEM THAT ...

I seem to be right. They seemed to know him. It seems that I am right. It seemed that they knew him

The Verb “TO MIND”

1.- To MIND = To LOOK AFTER:

I´ll mind the baby while you are out. Will you mind my luggage, please, for a few minutes?

2.- To MIND = To BE CAREFUL:

Mind that chair! Don´t fall over it! If it rains, mind you don´t get wet! Mind you get the tickets! Don´t forget! Mind you don´t spend too much money during your holidays!

3.- To MIND = To TAKE NOTICE:

Never mind! It´s not important. Don´t mind John. He´s not really angry.

4.- Do you MIND ...? / Would you MIND ...?:

Do you mind closing the window? Would you mind closing the window? Do you mind if I close the window? Would you mind if I close the window?

Usos de “MUCH, MANY, LITTLE y FEW

Para expresar en inglés poca cantidad empleamos LILTTLE y FEW.

FEW se emplea con los nombres contables y significa pocas cosas.

LITTLE va con nombres incontables y significa poco/poca.

Tanto LITTLE como FEW tienen valor negativo y niegan la existencia de una cantidad. En lengua hablabda no es muy frecuente el uso de little y few a menos que vayan precedidos de too, extremely, very etc. Es más frecuente el uso de NOT MANY, HARDLY EVER o NOT MUCH con el verbo en forma afirmativa o emplear MUCH o MANY con el verbo en forma negativa:

Así en vez de decir: He said little about his illness,

en conversación se prefiere:

He didn´t say much about his illness o He said hardly anything about his illness.

Cuando FEW y LITTLE van precedidos de artículo indeterminado a, entónces tienen valor afirmativo, con el significado de unos cuantos (a few) o una pequeña cantidad (a little).

Don´t worry if you haven´t any money. I have a few pounds here.

He was very thirsty but he has drunk a little water and he feels better now.

Para expresar mucha cantidad empleamos en inglés MUCH y MANY. Tanto much como many son adeverbios de cantidad.

MUCH se emplea con los nombres incontables con el significado de gran cantidad:

He hasn´t drunk much this morning.

Pero su uso debe quedar restringido a las oraciones negativas e interrogativas a menos que sea el sujeto de la oración o que califique al sujeto:

Much has been said about him but nobody believes it.

Much money has been spent in that building.

Excepto en ejemplos como los que hemos dado, a veces incluso en casos así, much se sustituye por a lot, a lot of, plenty of, a great deal of, lots of etc. en las oraciones afirmativas:

He always eats a lot of bread for breakfast.

There is a great deal of noise in this room.

MANY con el mismo significado que MUCH, se emplea con los nombres contables en plural:

There were many people outside the church.

Have you seen many films this summer?

MANY se usa indistintamente en oraciones afirmativas, negativas e interrogativas aunque a veces se emplea en afirmativas expresiones como VERY MANY. La única excepción en el empleo de MANY es cuando se utiliza con un nombre en singular precedido del artículo a:

Many a person has died because of that (=many people).

Colocación de “BOTH y ALL”

Cuando son sujeto de la oración en una frase larga pueden ir delante del sustantivo al que acompañan:

Both		live far from here
	(of) the children
All		are English

También pueden ir detrás del sustantivo:

	both
The boys (they)		love chocolate
	All

Si un verbo normal como el del ejemplo, van colocados antes de él. Si el verbo es auxiliar va detrás de él:

	both
The girls are		our friends
	all

Cuando son sujetos de una oración, pero ésta es corta, o cuando se trate de respuestas breves, si hay verbo auxiliar tenemos dos posibiliadades:

Que vayan entre el pronombre y el auxiliar.

Que vayan delante del auxiliar empleándolos con la preposición of o sustituyendo la forma del sujeto del pronombre por la de complemento, como exige la preposición:

(a)

	both
They		can
	all

(b)

Both
	of them can
All

Si en estas respuestas breves prescindimos del verbo, la construcción que empleamos es la b)

	Both of them
Who can go?
	All of them

Cuando acompaña al sustantivo que hace oficio de complemento, en oraciones largas, podemos emplearlos inmediatamente detrás del verbo utilizando la preposición of y la forma del complemento del pronombre. También hay posibilidad de posponerlos a la forma de complemento del pronombre prescindiendo de la preposición of:

(a)

	both
The girls ate		the sandwiches
	all

(b)

	both
They didn´t eat		the sandwiches
	all

(c)

	both
They wanted		them
	all

(d)

	both
They wanted them
	all

Si van con el complemento pero en las respuestas cortas o en frases también cortas, se usan seguidas de of y el pronombre complemento:

Both
	of us
All

Usos de “EITHER ... OR // NEITHER ...NOR”

Las oraciones coordinadas disyuntivas se construyen en inglés con la conjunción OR si son afirmativas y con NOR si son negativas:

Will you come or will you stay?

I don´t know, nor can I guess.

Cuando queremos darle más fuerza a la oración que ofrece la alternativa, en vez de emplear sólo OR utilizamos EITHER ... OR...:

You must either stay or go with me.

He can either keep it or give it to his sister.

Si la oración es nagativa, esta disyuntiva se expresa con NEITHER ... NOR... y el verbo en forma afirmativa, o con EITHER ... OR ... y el verbo en forma negativa. Se puede emplear cualquiera de las dos construcciones, aunque quizás la de uso más extendido es la primera:

Neither my brother nor my sister found the money you had lost.

They are neither German nor Russian.

They aren´t either German or Russian.

Por regla general en estas construcciones hay concordancia entre el verbo y el sujeto que está próximo a él, aunque a veces suene extraño:

Either Mary or you are wrong.

Neither Peter nor I am feeling well.

Normalmente y para evitar ésto se emplea la construcción similar a la de Addition to Remarks:

Either Mary is wrong or you are.

Peter is not feeling well, neither am I.

Comparación del “ADJETIVO y del ADVERBIO”

Los Adjetivos Calificativos tienen tres grados. POSITIVO, COMPARATIVO, SUPERLATIVO

bright ---------------- brighter --------------------- brightest

intelligent----------- more intelligent --------- most intelligent

La Comparación puede ser de tres tipos: IGUALDAD, SUPERIORIDAD, IFERIORIDAD:

La Comparación de igualdad se forma con AS ... AS y el adjetivo en grado positivo:

Mary is as clever as Peter

That book is as interesting as mine.

La Comparación de superioridad se construye con la forma del comparativo del adjetivo seguido de THAN:

Your brother is taller than your father.

Geography is more difficult than I thought.

El Comparativo de los adjetivos se forma siguiendo las siguientes reglas:

1.- Los adjetivos de una sílaba toman el sufijo -ER, doblando la consonante final en los casos en que vaya una vocal sólo entre dos consonantes:

Old ---------------- older; hard ---------------- harder; big ----------------- bigger

2.- Los adjetivos de tres o más sílabas llevan antepuesto MORE al grado positivo del adjetivo:

more helpful; more intelligent; more interesting.

3.- Los adjetivos de dos sílabas siguen una de las dos reglas ya expuestas: unos toman el sufijo -ER y a otros se le antepone MORE. Como regla general los que terminan en -y, -w, -er, -ly toman el sufijo -ER y los que terminan en -re, o -ful se le antepone MORE:

pretty ----------------- prettier; helpful ----------------- more helpful.

El Comparativo de inferioridad se forma con LESS y el grado positivo del adjetivo, pero es más frecuente construirlo con NOT AS ... AS o NOT SO ... AS:

Your dress is less long than Mary´s

Your dress is not (as) so long as Mary´s.

El SUPERLATIVO se forma siguiendo las mismas reglas del COMPARATIVO pero con la terminación -EST en vez de -ER y anteponiendo MOST en vez de MORE. El uso del Superlativo en inglés así formado corresponde al superlativo relativo español. Es decir, no expresa una cualidad en grado máximo unicamente sino que lo que hace es compraralo con un grupo:

Mary is the most intelligent girl in her class.

Soria is the smallest capital in Spain.

La preposición española DE después de superlativos en inglés se traduce por IN seguido de un sustantivo de lugar y por OF cuando no es de lugar.

Cuando se emplea el superlativo sin artículo su valor es similar al que tiene el adjetivo precedido de VERY, TERRIBLY, TREMENDOUSLY etc.

Hay que destacar una serie de excepciones idiomáticas en las que interviene el comparativo o el superlativo:

• THE seguido de comparativo .... THE seguido de comparativo indica que algo aumenta o disminuye. Su equivalente al español es: Cuanto mas/menos ... mas/menos:

• Comparativo and comparativo. Equivale a: CADA VEZ MÁS:

• HAD BETTER seguido de infinitivo sin TO. Significa: Será/Sería mejor que con subjuntivo:

Hay una serie de comparativos y superlativos irregulares que no se forman siguiendo las reglas dadas y que son los siguientes:

Positivo	Comparativo	Superlativo
Good/well Bad/badly Much/many Little Near Far Old Late	Better Worse More Less Nearer Farther Further Older Elder Later Latter	Best Worst Most Least Nearest (distancia) Next (orden) Farthest (para distancia ambos) Furthest (para algo adicional) Odest Eldest (persona misma familia) Latest Last

Resumen:

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES: Form: One-syllable and most two-syllable adjectives: adjs + -er/est: tall - taller, tallest (except adjs: -ed/ing) adjs + ier/-iest: heavy - heavier, heaviest Irregular: better/best; worse/worst; less/least; more/most; farther/farthest Two or more syllables: more convinient/most convinient. Intensifiers: quite/fairly/rather/very/too/extremely/increasingly (good) a bit/a lot/much/very much/a food deal (better)/more (convinient) Use: Comparing two: John is as tall as Mary (AS ................. AS) John is not as/so tall as Mary (NOT AS/SO ... AS) John is taller than Mary (-ER/-IER ... THAN) Comparing more than two: John is the tallest/the most intelligent student in our class.

Características de los VERBOS DEFECTIVOS

Se denominan verbos defectivos a aquellos que carecen de alguna forma vebal, es decir, todos los verbos en inglés tienen tres formas básicas: infinitivo, pasado, participio pasado, alrededor de las cuales se forman todos los tiempos verbales. Pues bien los verbos que carezcan de alguna o algunas de estas formas se denominan DEFECTIVOS:

• Todos ellos carecen de infinitivo (por tanto no se le puede poner la partícula to, ni tampoco pueden hacer el futuro ni el condicional) y participio de pasado (con lo que no pueden hacer tiempos compuestos ni tiempos pasivos).

• Van seguidos siempre de infinitivo sin to (bien sea de presente o perfecto), excepto OUGHT TO y USED TO, puesto que este to pertenecen a estos defectivos.

• Nunca llevan -s en las terceras personas de singular del presente de indicativo.

• Como verbos auxiliares-defectivos hacen la interrogativa y negativa por sí solos.

• Si van seguidos por infinitivo de presente se refieren a acciones presentes o futuras

• Si van seguidos por infinitivo de perfecto se refieren a acciones pasadas.

PRINCIPALES VERBOS AUXILIARES MODALES o DEFECTIVOS

must; can/could; may/might; will/would; shall/should; ought to; used to; need/dare (se denominan también semimodales, puesto que pueden ser modales o léxicos).

MUST / NEED / CAN / MAY

Presente/Futuro	Pasado/Condicional	Verbos que suplen las deficiencias
can	could	to be able to
may	might	to be allowed/permitted
must	---	to have to

Must en afirmativa implica OBLIGACION interna, es decir, impuesta por el que habla o escribe, a diferencia de have to en donde la OBLIGACIÓN es externa, ésta la imponen terceras personas o circunstancias. También puede implicar DEDUCCIÓN, dependiendo del contexto.

Must en negativa (Mustn´t) implica PROHIBICIÓN. También dependiendo de contextos, puede implicar que es erroneo o equivocado llevar a cabo ciertas acciones.

Needn´t es la negativa de must como obligación, por tanto indica ausencia de obligación y se traduce por “no es necesario”.

Can´t es la negativa de must como deducción. No se puede confundir la forma can´t con cannot, esta última solo puede ser tomada como negativa de can (poder).

Diferencia de “CAN y MAY”

Can tiene tres sigificados: May tiene dos significados:

• Poder (capacidad física). - Poder (posibilidad).

• Habilidad (saber = how to know). - Permiso.

• Permiso (darlo o concederlo).

Donde se pueden confundir los significados de los dos verbos es en cuanto a permiso y la diferencia es que may se utiliza mucho más que can con este significado, puesto que can implica además esa capacidad física.

• Ver ejemplos en los apartados de los Usos de CAN / COULD // MAY / MIGHT.

He may come = quizás

He might come = posibilidad remota

COULD = acción no terminada: He could swim across the river.

WAS ABLE = acción terminada: He was able to swim across the river.

CAN´T: significa DEDUCCIÓN en negativa (can´t # cannot (negativa de can)).

MUSN´T: aparte de PROHIBICIÓN puede también significar que algo es erroneo,

peligroso, o tonto el hacerlo.

SHOULD y OUGHT TO: significan debería. Should es deber de consejo. Ought to es más

bien deber moral.

You should read more books.

You ought to read more books.

OBLIGACIÓN: must - have to - should - ought to de mayor a menor fuerza de obligación

USED TO: sólo tiene forma pasada. Significa “solía”. Se utiliza para costumbres en el

pasado. Siempre va seguido de Infinitivo:

I used to read

Si se quiere expresar costumbre en presente:

I usually read.

Como verbo defectivo puede hacer la interrogativa y negativo por si solo, o también con el auxiliar “did”:

I used not (usedn´t) to read I did not use to read

Used you to read? Did you use to read?

Sin embargo en las respuestas cortas se hace con auxiliar (Yes, I did.)

• Una característica propia para todos los auxiliares defectivos, independientemente de que vayan en forma PRESENTE o PASADA:

Si van seguidos de INFINITIVO de PRESENTE se refieren a acciones presentes o futuras.

Si van seguidos de INFINITIVO de PERFECTO se refieren a acciones pasadas.

Used es adjetivo con el significado de “acostumbrado” cuando va precedido de verbos como to be/become/seem/appear. Rige también la preposición “to”, por tanto a continuación hay que poner este caso gerundio (la forma -ING), puesto que en inglés la regla general es que después de preposición hay que poner siempre GERUNDIO:

I´m used to reading

“to” funciona como preposición si aparte del infinitivo español puede entrar un pronombre personal de complemento o un sustantivo.

NEED + GERUNDIO (-ING)

Need seguido de GERUNDIO tiene siempre significado pasivo:

I´m afraid the flat needs doing up a bit.

Esta estructura significa: IT IS/WAS NECESSARY + FOR + OBJECT + TO BE DONE.

Diferencias entre SAY/TELL/SPEAK/TALK

SAY: Normalmente no va seguido por la persona a la que uno se dirige:

What did you say?

TELL: Con frecuencia va seguido de la persona a la que nos dirigimos:

• Construcción de infinitivo (o acusativa): He told me to get on with my work.

• También se utiliza con partículas interrogativas + infinitivo con to:

He told me what to do.

• En frases hechas:

To tell lies / Tell me a story / Tell me the truth

SAY: Significa: expresar por medio de palabras, y TELL significa DECIR en el sentido de contar, relatar, narrar.

SPEAK: tiene cuatro significados:

Con idiomas:

Do you speak English?

Con objeto: tiene el sentido de dar una conferencia, echar un discurso:

Today I´m going to speak about Shakespeare.

En el teléfono: cuando se descuelga:

This is Vigo 430387. Who´s speaking?

Con el significado de decir algo rige las preposiciones to (con) y about (de):

She was so angry with me that she didn´t speak to me all day.

TALK: Tiene dos significados:

Charlar, conversar. Rige las preposiciones to y about:

What were they talking about?

Alborotar (make a noise with words):

Stop talking and get on with your work!

Diferencias entre SEEM y LOOK

Ambos significan parecer. Y la diferencia está en que cuando van seguidos de adjetivo, se usa LOOK cuando queremos resaltar la apariencia física de algo o alguien. Mientras que si después va un infinitivo hay que usar siempre SEEM.

LOOK tiene, sin embargo, otros significados, dependiendo de la preposición que le acompañe: look at (mirar a); look for (buscar); look up (buscar algo en el lugar apropiado); look out! (cuidado!); look forward to (esperar allgo con ilusión, ansiar); look on to (admirar a alguien); look down on (despreciar); look like (parecerse a).

THINK / SUPPOSE / HOPE

I think so - creo que si I don´t think so - creo que no

I suppose so - supongo que si I suppose not - supongo que no

I hope so - espero que si I hope not - espero que no

I´m afraid so - me temo que si I´m afraid not - me temo que no

¡¡¡¡ no se puede negar nunca LA COMPLETIVA DE “THINK” !!!

Significados de la palabra “LEFT”

• Right // Left.

• To Leave Left Left = dejar, partir, marchar, irse.

• Sobrante, que queda de sobra left-overs = sobras (de la comida).

Diferencia entre “BEEN TO” y “GONE TO”

Ella ha ido al banco: - She has gone to the bank.

- She has been to the bank.

BEEN TO = ir, implicando estar de vuelta, que ya ha vuelto.

Have you ever been to England?

GONE TO = que estás allá, implica solo ida.

Expressing WISHES and REGRETS

Si nos referimos a presente o futuro. Se hace con wish + simple past:

I wish he had a bit more more money ...

Do you wish you could speak Portuguese?

• Con el verbo to be, se utiliza were para todas las personas (subjuntivo)

I wish the kitchen were a bit longer.

Estos deseos som imposibles. Wish suele traducirse por: Ojalá.

Si nos referimos al pasado. Se hace con wish + past perfect:

I wish I had seen you yesterday.

I wish you had married me instead of him.

I WISH and IF ONLY

Se utiliza wish y if only + simple past or could cuando queremos que algo cambie en el presente:

I wish I could sing ( I can't sing)

If only I wasn't ill (I am ill)

Se utiliza wish y would para quejarse de alguna situación o circunstancia:

I wish he would stop smoking!

I wish they would be quiet!

Se utiliza wish o if only + past perfect o could + infinitivo de perfecto cuando queremos cambiar una situacion pasada:

Matt wishes he had apologized (he didn't apologise)

If only I had told the truth (I didn't tell the truth)

It´s (ABOUT) TIME + Simple Past

Va seguido siempre de pasado simple con significado de presente o futuro:

It´s (about) time we found a flat.

It´s time he was here. He is late.

It´s NO GOOD + -ING

It´s no good / It isn´t any good siempre va seguido de gerundio (-ing) con significado de there is no advantage:

It´s no good looking up hundreds of flats.

GERUNDIO

Como forma no personal del verbo tiene todas las funciones del sustantivo:

Como sujeto de la oración:

Living in London is expensive.

• La misma función también la tiene el infinitivo con to y la diferencia que hay en poner de sujeto un gerundio o un infinitivo está en que con el gerundio se ha experimentado la acción, mientras que con el infinitivo no necesariamente:

To live in London is expensive.

La estructura de gerundio como sujeto equivale a: IT´S + ADJETIVO + TO-INFINITIVE:

It is expensive to live in London.

Después de los siguientes verbos hay que utiizar gerundio:

admit anticipate avoid consider delay deny

detest enjoy excuse* finish forgive* imagine

involve keep mind miss postpone resist

rest stop help (en can´t help) stand (en can´t stand)

• A los verbos que llevan asterisco se le suele poner un adjetivo posesivo antes del gerundio.

Arthur didn´t enjoy cleaning the flat.

My husband detests doing his own cooking.

Se pone gerundio después de ciertos phrasal verbs, principalmente en aquellos phrasal que van seguidos de dos partículas, dónde la segunda partícula siempre es preposición: carry on, give up, keep on, leave off, put off, do away with, put up with...

Many firms are giving up employing their own typists

La regla en inglés es que después de preposición hay que poner siempre gerundio; por tanto hay que poner gerundio despues de los verbos que rigen preposición, dentro de esos verbos, los más utilizados son: accuse someone of, approve of, to be fond of, to be good/bad at, to be used to, to feel like, to insist on, to look forward to, to succeed in, to think of/about, what about ...?

She left without saying anything.

También hay que poner gerundio después de los adjetivos posesivos:

Mary insisted on Arthur´s helping / on his helping.

En inglés hablado o en inglés informal se puede cambiar este posesivo por un nombre o pronombre personal de complemento:

Mary insisted on Arthur helping

Will you excuse my leaving early? // Will you excuse me leaving early?

Puede hacerse también con la estructura de condicional, evitando así el posesivo:

Will you excuse me if I leave early?

Participio de presente

El uso básico del participo de presente es para la formación de tiempos continuos. Se forma al igual que el gerundio añadiéndole -ing al infinitivo.

Usos:

Con los vebos de percepción (de los sentidos): see, hear, smell, watch, notice.

En la estructura impersonal there is/are.

Para añadir algo nuevo a una oración.

Come adjetivo “activo”.

Va siempre después de los verbos come y go, si es un verbo de actividad física

I´m going to swimming this afternoon.

Después del verbo keep.

I´m sorry to keep you waiting.

Después de los verbos: spend y waste.

Se puede utilizar en vez de oraciones causales, reemplazando a las conjunciones: because, since, as

I went to the station expecting to meet you but you didn´t arrive as I thought at first.

Participio de pasado

Su uso principal es para la formación de los tiempos compuestos (con have) y los tiempos pasivos (con to be) de los verbos.

Como participio pasivo o pasado para añadir algo nuevo a una oración:

There were a lot of bottles thrown into the river.

Cars parked on double yellow lines will be taken away.

Como adjetivo “pasivo”:

He tried to sell me a stolen watch.

PARTICIPIOS en vez de ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS

a) en vez de ORACIONES DE RELATIVO (Present and Past Participles).

b) en vez de ORACIONES TEMPORALES DE PRESENTE (Present Participle).

c) en vez de ORACIONES TEMPORALES DE PASADO (Perfect Participle).

d) en vez de ORACIONES CAUSALES (Present and Perfect Participles).

a) en vez de oraciones de relativo (Present and Past Participles):

He stays in a cottage in Wales belonging to his aunt.

The cottage was in a village called Penol.

There were heavy winds blowing across the motorway.

Leave a note out telling him what you want.

Tanto el Participio de Presente como el Participio de Pasado se pueden usar en lugar de oraciones de relativo.

b) en vez de oraciones temporales de presente (Present Participle):

While walking down Earls Court Road, he happened to bump into as fellow student.

When thinking about Wales, one remembers that the Welsh are renowned for their singing.

He drove down the road thinking about his problems.

Aquí el Participio, con o sin “while” o “when” reemplaza a una oración temporal de presente para mostrar que las dos acciones estan teniendo lugar simultaneamente.

c) en vez de oraciones temporales de pasado (Perfect Participle):

Having made a reasonable amount of maney, Arthur didn't need to do any more work.

Having got to Camarthen, he took a wrong turning.

El Participio de Prefecto se puede usar -generalmente en inglés escrito- como alternativa de oraciones subordinadas introducidas por "when", "after", "as soon as" etc.

d) en vez de oraciones causales (Present and Perfect Participles):

Consisting of mountains, castles and seaside resorts, North Wales is the best known to tourists.

Not knowing what to do, she decided to do nothing.

Having lost his job, he is now unemployed.

En estas oraciones los Participios se usan como alternativas para oraciones subordinadas introducidas por “as”, “because” or “since”.

Falsos Participios

Se les llama así porque se les añade -ED a un sustantivo. Es la combinación de un adjetivo por medio de guión con un sustantivo en -ED. Se pueden hacer “falsos participios” con todos los sustantivos:

We have a house with four bedrooms We have a four-bedroomed house.

Verbos que no se pueden poner en “tiempos continuos”

La siguientes verbos no se pueden poner en tiempos continuos, aunque algunos de ellos se pueden encontrar en tiempos continuos pero con otro significado:

to see* to like to trust to appear (seem) to hear

to think* to be* to smell to keep (continue) to wish

to believe to seem to notice to care to expect*

to belong to contain to realize to recognize to remember

to forget to refuse to forgive to understand to matter

to know to mind to mean to suppose to concern

to want to possess to love to hate to consist

to own to dislike to have* to feel (think)

Hay 5 verbos que si se pueden poner en tiempos continuos:

• El verbo to see: cuando tiene el significado de visitar (visit, meet):

Tomorrow I´m seeing to my doctor

I shall be seeing John tonight if you want me to give him the message.

• To think: se puede utilizar en continuo cuando no se da ni se pide opinión:

What are you thinking about?

• To be: se puede emplear en continuo cuando es “auxiliar” de tiempos continuos pasivos de los demas verbos:

Many buildings are being built in this street.

• También cuando tiene el significado de comportarse (to behave):

You are being very silly!!!

• To expect: se puede utilizar en continuo cuando es sinónimo de wait for (esperar fisicamente, mientras que expect no implica esperar físico):

I´m expecting a telephone call from Ireland.

I´m expecting a letter tomorrow.

• To have: se puede poner en continuo si es sinónimo de comer, recibir, tomar ... es decir, cuando le acompañan palabras que son su complemento directo:

Don´t disturb, he´s having a rest.

They were having lunch when I arrived.

Verbos seguidos por INFINITIVO sin TO

Los verbos seguidos por infinitivo sin to son los verbos de los sentidos (percepción), los verbos to make (que toma infinitivo con to cuando se conjuga en pasiva) y to let, el verbo to help (que puede ir seguido de infinitivo con o sin to) y las locuciones verbales would rather/sooner y had better (que van casi siempre contraidas con el pronombre personal sujeto: I´d rather/sooner, I´d better).

Verbos seguidos por INFINITIVO con TO

To agree to expect to learn to refuse

to appear to fail to manage to regret

to arrange to forget to neglet to seem

to ask to help to prepare to swear

to care to hesitate to pretend to tend

to decide to hope to promise to want

Arthur managed to find a seat.

• También se puede poner construcción negativa (not + to-infinitive) con algunos de estos verbos:

to agree to decide to manage to seem

to appear to hope to pretend to swear

to ask to learn to promise to tend

Arthur decided not to wait.

Verbos seguidos de Objeto + INFINITIVO con TO

Es la construcción acusativa o de infinitivo, en dónde el objeto del verbo principal es a su vez sujeto de infinitivo (es la estructura procedente del infinitivo no concertado latino, donde el sujeto del infinitivo va en caso acusativo):

Esta estructura en inglés se da con verbos de voluntad, mandato, consejo etc... en oraciones compuestas sustantivas en función de Complemento Directo (donde nunca se puede hacer con completivas de “THAT” (that-clause))

to advice to order to allow to permit

to ask to prefer to expect to teach

to forbide to tell to help to warn

to invite to want

He told him to come back the next day.

Do you want me to help you?

Verbos seguidos por “HOW TO + TO-INFINITIVE”

Los verbos son: ask, discover, explain, find out, forget, remember, tell, understand, wonder:

Another student explained to Arthur how to register.

Adjetivos seguidos de INFINITIVO con TO

able happy afraid likely

angry sad delighted sorry

disgusted suppose disappointed surprised

glad unable

The principal was delighted to see so many students.

• También la estructura IT IS/WAS + Adjective + TO-INFINITIVE se usa con los siguientes adjetivos: difficult, easy, hard, impossible, possible:

It is difficult to light a pipe when you are driving a car.

Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO sin cambio de significado

to begin to bother (fastidiar) can´t bear to continue

to love to hate to like to prefer

to start

It started snowing/to snow while we were on the train.

• Los verbos: to like, to love, to hate y to prefer tienen que ir sólo seguidos por INFINITIVO con TO cuando van conjugados en condicional

Would you like to come to the cinema tonight or would you prefer to go to a solitary place?

Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO con cambio de significado

to remember to forget to try to stop

to regret to mean to allow/permit

To REMEMBER:

• Va seguido de gerundio cuando significa “recordar algo que ya se ha hecho”, es decir, cuando nos referimos al pasado:

I remember seeing the Queen when I was 10 years old.

• Va seguido de infinitivo cuando significa “acordarse de que uno tiene que hacer algo”, es decir, cuando nos referimos al futuro:

I must remember to go to the bank tomorrow.

• Este verbo puede ir seguido de un completiva de “that” (that-clause), cuando los sujetos de cada parte de la oración son diferentes:

She remembered that Arthur had forgotten to take his overcoat.

To FORGET:

• Tiene el mismo cambio de significado que remember. Sin embargo, cuando va seguido de gerundio puede colocarse la preposición about:

Surely, you haven´t forgotten (about) meeting her already.

I forgot that you asked me to go to the bank.

To TRY:

• Seguido por gerundio significa “experimentar, probar o hacer algo para ver que efecto tiene”:

He tried taking a couple of aspirins, but they didn´t have any effect.

• Con infinitivo significa “intentar”:

He tried to do this exercise.

To STOP:

• Seguido de gerundio significa “dejar de, parar de hacer algo (not continue)”

Will you please stop making that noise?

• Seguido de infinitivo significa “parar de hacer lo que está en curso para hacer otra cosa”

When we got to the top of the hill we stopped to look at the view.

To REGRET: Significa “lamentarse en general”

• Con gerundio toma el significado de “sentir que uno ha hecho algo”

I don´t regret leaving my last job at all.

• Con infinitivo significa “sentir que uno tenga que hacer algo”

Dr Newton regrets to say that that he cannot answer readers´ questions.

• Sin embargo, este verbo a menudo va seguido de la completiva de “that” (that-clause) con ambos significados:

I don´t regret that I left my last job at all.

To MEAN:

• Con gerundio significa “involve” (tener que ver con), usado sólo impersonalmente:

Having a bad-chest means going without cigarettes.

• Con infinitivo significa “intentar”:

To ALLOW / To PERMIT: Van seguidos de gerundio cuando la persona o personas no son mencionadas. Por otra parte si se menciona la persona o personas, entónces tienen que ir seguidos de infinitvo:

Don´t allow smoking in class!

I don´t allow my students to smoke in the classroom.

Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO sin TO o PARTICIPIO DE PRESENTE

Todos los verbos de sensación: see, hear, feel, smell ... y los verbos listen to y watch pueden ir seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO o PARTICIPIO DE PRESENTE (-ING):

I have ever seen so many people all waiting to be served.

I have already heard him tell some of those stories on TV.

Hay una diferencia entre emplear infinitivo o participio de presente, especialmente si la acción es corta. Sin embargo, el uso del infinitivo indica que la acción está finalizada:

I heard the Beatles play “Yesterday” on the radio. (escuché toda la canción)

I heard the Beatles playing “Yesterday” on the radio. (puede que no escuchara la canción entera)

Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS PASIVOS

En la lista de verbos mencionada hay ciertos verbos que van seguidos de infinitivos pasivos

Some policiemen themselves would prefer to be armed.

VERBO + OBJETO + INFINITIVO PASIVO con TO

They wanted the car to be returned on Monday morning.

c) ADJETIVO + INFINITIVO PASIVO con TO

I was surprised not to be invited to the party.

Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO CONTINUO

• Acentúa o enfatiza el aspect continuo de la actividad, es decir, lo que sucede en el momento de hablar: appear, expect, hope, pretend, regret, seem, be supposed to:

Some students appeared to be taking notes.

Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO de PERFECTO

• Se utiliza para referirse a algo que ya ha sucedido o se supone que habrá sucedido, y se utiliza con los veerbos: appear, expect, fail, hope, pretend, promise, seem, be supposed to:

Galileo is supposed to have invented the telescope.

INFINITIVO de PROPÓSITO o FINALIDAD

• Indica la finalidad o propósito de la acción (Vease oraciones finales):

The students were waiting to hear what the Principal had to say.

TO BE + INFINITIVO con TO

• Sirve para describir planes o acciones futuras. Va seguido de infinitivo de presente. Con esta misma función puede emplearse el presente contínuo o futuro contínuo. Pero cuando los planes o acciones son pasadas no hay posible alternativa:

In the second week of the term they were to visit a car-factory in Vigo

• También puede describir planes que han fracasado o no se han llevado a cabo. En este caso el verbo to be va seguido de infinitivo de perfecto:

The new car model was to have been out last month, but there was a strike.

• Obligación: particularmente cuando el hablante está repitiendo órdenes dichas por terceras personas:

You are to be back at the bus at 2 o´clock.

PREPOSITIONAL VERBS y PHRASAL VERBS

• Se entiende por preposional verb, la combinación de un verbo con una preposición. Son todos transitivos, puesto que después de una preposición siempre tiene que haber algun elemento sea sustantivo, gerundio, pronombre o frase preposicional.

• Un phrasal verb es la combinación de un verbo con un adverbio, la mayor parte de las veces no tiene nada que ver con el significado original del verbo. A su vez pueden ser transitivos o intransitivos.

TAKE OFF (tr.) something = to remove

(tr.) someone = to imitate

He took off his hat.

TAKE OFF (intr.) = to leave the ground

The plane took off at 12.30 p.m.

• En cuanto a la posición del complemento directo en los phrasal, hay que tener en cuenta tres aspectos:

Si el C.D. es corto, es decir, compuesto de una o dos palabras, puede ir antes o después del adverbio:

He took off his hat.

He took his hat off.

Si el C.D. es largo, es decir, compuesto por varios elementos, hay que colocarlo inmediatamente después del adverbio para que el phrasal no pierda así su significado.

He took off his hat which was too large.

Si el C.D. es un pronombre personal de complemento, hay que colocarlo entre el verbo y el adverbio, de lo contrario sería falta gramatical:

He took it off.

• una excepción: en cuanto al phrasal get over, donde hay diferencia en cuanto a significado:

He got over it (recuperarse, recobrarse de una enfermedad ...recover)

He got it over (deshacerse, desembarzarse de .... get rid of)

• Si se trata de prepositional vebrs, el complemento tiene que ir colocado siempre después de la preposición:

Arthur and Mary talked to their old friends (they talked to them).

La Puntuación

1) Exclamation mark (!): Se utiliza después de mandatos, exclamaciones e interjecciones:

Go away! What a beautiful day! Hell!

2) Semi-colon (; ): Se utiliza para unir oraciones de igual importancia, yustapuestas:

This is s very good car; in fact it is the best.

Colon (: ): Se utiliza para introducir una lista, o también para unir oraciones cuando la segunda es consecuencia o explicación de la primera:

Let me give you some advice: don´t trust him!

Learn the following: the present, the past, the future and .....

Inverted commas or quotation marks (“ ”): Se utilizan en el estilo directo o también para resaltar o destacar en un artículo algo, o para acotaciones:

“I don´t know”, said Mary, “why did you tell it to me?”

The advertisement was put in the paper by a “large expanding company”

Comma ( , ):

Se utiliza delante o después del nombre de la persona a la que uno se dirige:

Come on, Arthur! Mary, are you in?

Delante de la tail questions o question-tags:

You aren´t happy, are you?

Después de Yes o No en las respuestas cortas y después de expresiones de introducción.

Yes, I did. No, I didn´t. Well, never mind!

Delante o después de palabras o expresiones entre paréntesis y nombres en aposición:

Arthur´s tutor, Mr Traddford, gave him his timetable.

Después de cada palabra o expresión en una lista de más de dos, pero no delante de la palabra and (aunque en inglés americano se ponga):

The Registrar, the Librarian and the Lodging Officer said a few words.

f) Antes y después de la oraciones de relativo explicativas:

The Open University, which is open to all, is a unique institution.

Después de la oraciones subordinadas cuando van delante de la oración principal:

When I was a boy, I used to drink milk.

En el estilo directo para separar la oración del verbo introductor de la oración de estilo directo (la que va entre comillas) y también para separar palabras en acotaciones del resto de la oración:

“All you need”, he said, “is love”

POSICIÓN DE ADVERBIOS y FRASES ADVERBIALES EN LAS ORACIONES.-

Adverbios de modo: Contestan a la pregunta con HOW? y se colocan después del C.D. si lo hay, si no, después del verbo:

The first term seemed to go by very quickly.

The rest of the day was spent in a very relaxed way.

Los adverbios de modo se forman normalmente añadiéndole al adjetivo la terminación -LY: quick --> quickly; ésta misma terminación si se le añade a un sustantivo da su correspondiente adjetivo: friend --> friendly.

En los casos en que las palabras terminadas en ­-LY sean adjetivos, como en el último caso, para formar en español su correspondiente adverbio de modo se recurre a la estructura: in + adjetivo + way: in a friendly way.

Adverbios de lugar: Contestan a la pregunta con WHERE?, siguen al C.D., y si no lo hay, al verbo:

Mary did all the Christmas shopping in Oxford Street.

Adverbios de tiempo: Contestan a la pregunta con WHEN? o HOW LONG? normalmente se colocan al final de la frase, pero a veces pueden aparecer al principio:

It continued snowing for the rest of the day.

Adverbios de frecuencia: Contestan a la pregunta con HOW OFTEN?, tienen tres colocaciones:

- Después de los tiempos simples del verbo to be:

Arthur was often late to work.

- Antes de los tiempos simples de los demás verbos:

Jennifer always preferred to play with Arthur´s trains.

- Dónde haya uno o más auxiliares se coloca después del primero:

I have never heard such awful music.

Adverbios de grado: Son los que modifican a un adjetivo o a otro adverbio y se colocan delante de las palabras a las que modifican:

The weather was usually cold.

Algunos de estos adverbios de grado modifican a verbos, entónces se ponen delante del verbo principal o después del primer auxiliar:

He almost had an accident in his car.

El adverbio YET: Normalmente se coloca al final de frase, pero puede aparecer, sobre todo en inglés escrito, después de un auxiliar. Con el verbo en negativa significa: todavía; y con el verbo en interrogativa significa: ya. Como no puede ir con el verbo en afirmativa, hay que poner already con el significado de ya; y still con el significado de todavía. Tanto already como still tienen la misma colocación que los adverbios de frecuencia en la frase (Repasar las partículas any more/any longer o no more/no longer):

Jennifer had not arrived home yet o Jennifer had not yet arrived home.

Jennifer had already arrived home.

Churches are still well attended.

Otras características: Si hay dos o más adverbios en una oración la colocación sería MODO-LUGAR-TIEMPO. Pero si se trata de VERBOS DE MOVIMIENTO, la colocación sería LUGAR-MODO-TIEMPO:

Arthur and Mary went to Applefield by train at Christmas.

La Partícula “AS”

Como CONJUNCIÓN:

• CAUSAL (=because, since)

Arthur did not go as he does not like to be pushed.

She put the puddings on the stove as they take a long time to cook.

• TEMPORAL (=when, while)

I got to the station just as the train was leaving.

Como PREPOSICIÓN: La diferencia entre as y like es que as tiene el significado de igualdad, es decir, que lo es realmente, mientras que like indica comparación, es decir, que no lo es:

He spoke as a lawyer (Habló como un abogado (es abogado))

He spoke like a lawyer (Habló como un abogado (pero no es abogado))

He works as a slave.

he works like a slave.

QUITE/RATHER/SUCH + A/AN + NOMBRE SINGULAR CONTABLE.-

La forma más débil de expresar gradación es quite a/an y la forma más fuerte es

such a/an:

It was quite a good play, i suppose (not bad, but not really good either).

Arthur sat down to breakfast with rather a long face.

PREPOSICIONES FINALES

Estas preposiciones se ponen al final de la frase cuando se trata de preguntas directas o indirectas, y en las oraciones de relativo (especificativas) cuando el verbo que lleva en las frases rige preposición:

Who are we waiting for?

I wonder what she is thinking about.

The play our teacher spoke about was rather amusing.

ANY + COMPARATIVOS

Después de verbos negativos y la preposición WITHOUT se emplea ANY delante de adjetivos y adverbios en grado comparativo:

Arthur didn´t need to do any more work.

Can you push any harder?

Without any further delay Arthur phoned David.

WH-WORDS + TO-INFINITIVE

Se emplean para hacer preguntas indirectas para pedir consejo o información de algo:

Arthur had no idea what to do with his artichoke.

If you don´t know where to look, start with the book-case.

Tanto “which” como “what” pueden funcionar también como adjetivos interrogativos, es decir, pueden preceder a un sustantivo:

Can you tell me which bus to take?

Your teacher will advise you what books to read.

LAS PARTICULAS: “TOO” e “ENOUGH”

Too siginifica “demasiado” cuando va con adjetivos y adverbios y significa “también” cuando va al final de frase después de coma. Se coloca delante de los adjetivos y adverbios pero cuando hay sustantivos hay que intercalar las partículas “much” o “many” entre too y el sustantivo. Los adjetivos y adverbios siempre tienen matiz negativo y para resaltar este matiz se suele hacer con la estructura “for + pronombre personal de complemento + infinitivo con to”:

This window is too dirty for me to see through.

Enough significa “bastante, suficiente”. Se coloca después de adjetivos y adverbios, pero delante de los sustantivos (good enough, enough money). Va siempre, al contrario que too, con palabras que tienen matiz positivo; y para resaltar este matiz también se hace con la estructura “for + pronombre personal de complemento + infinitivo con to”:

This window isn´t clean enough for me to see through.

Estructuras cuando queremos decir lo mismo:

This window was so dirty that we could´t see through it

This window was too dirty for us to see through.

This window wasn´t clean enough to see through.

SO/SUCH ... THAT

Las partículas so/such ... that se utilizan para hacer oraciones con el significado de tan/tanto .... que. SO se emplea con adjetivos (donde se incluyen much,many,little y few + sustantivos) y advebios. Por otra parte SUCH se emplea con sustantivos (se pondrá SUCH A/AN si el sustantivo es contable singular y SUCH solamente si el sustantivo es incontable o plural):

It was so cold that the river froze.

There were so many people that we could´t see.

He is such a fool that he doesn´t understand anything.

It was such a hot day that I took off my shirt.

ALTHOUGH / THOUGH

Though es la forma apocopada (corta) de Although. Son conjunciones concesivas y significan “aunque, sin embargo”. La diferencia entre ellas está en la colocación en la frase:

Tanto Although como Though pueden ponerse ambas al principio de frase:

Although/Though they were poor they were happy.

Though puede ponerse al final de la frase después de coma. Although puede ponerse también en medio de la frase:

They were happy. They were poor, though

They were happy although they were poor.

CONSTRUCCIÓN ACUSATIVA o INFINITIVA INGLESA

Se da esta estructura en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en función de Complemento Directo que dependa de verbos de voluntad, mandato, consejo, deseo, en donde el C.D. del verbo principal es a su vez sujeto del infinitivo y este infinitivo se traduce al español por subjuntivo que le sigue (es igual al infinitivo no concertado latino):

Quiero que él venga = I want him to come

Si el verbo principal no es de voluntad, se hace con that + indicativo o con gerundio precedido de adjetivo posesivo:

No creo que ella haya dicho eso = I don´t believe that she has said that

I don´t believe her having said that.

EXLAMACIONES

Normalmente en inglés se hacen las exclamaciones de dos maneras:

What + a/an + sustantivo contable singular

What + sustantivo (plural o incontable)

What a beautiful day!

What beautiful days!

What weather!

How + adjetivo o adverbio + pronombre sujeto + verbo:

How beautiful she is!

How beautifully she dances!

PRONOMBRES, ADJETIVOS y ADVERBIOS INTERROGATIVOS con “EVER”

• Se usa “ever” para enfatizar el pronombre, adjetivo o adverbio, expresando sorpresa. Con todos, “ever” se une directamente excepto con WHY, con el que se pone por separado:

Whatever are you doing now?

Why ever can they get back on time?

• Ever es sinónimo de any o every, y se traduce por “cualquiera que, quienquiera que, lo que quiera que etc...” y se utiliza para traducir el subjuntivo en inglés, llamándose ésto traducción por reduplicación:

Whatever = anything that, everything that.

Whoever = anyone that, everyone that.

• Se utilizan estas partículas para introducir oraciones nominales, bien como sujeto o como complemento directo del verbo principal:

Whoever is tired of London is tired of life.

I´ll do whatever you want.

• Puede ser sinónimo de NO MATTER, e introducir oraciones adverbiales, equivalente a la estructura: It doesn´t matter what-/who-/which-/where-/when-/how...:

Whatever else he did, he had better get a vacation job.

Wherever you go there is always someone we have to wait for.

However busy you are I´m sure you have time for a cup of tea.

IN CASE / UNLESS

IN CASE se utiliza para evitar cosas que no se desean como sinónimo de “providing eventualities”. Se utiliza para resguardarse contra algo que está sucediendo o para evitar que suceda, y se traduce por si acaso. Suele ir con tiempos o locuciones verbales que indican tiempo presente (normalmente subjuntivo):

Paddy brought his overalls in case Arthur needed any help.

Take your umbrella in case it rains

UNLESS es una conjunción condicional negativa que significa IF NOT (= a menos que) y se emplea para hacer amenazas o dar avisos:

Most people employed a professional painter, unless they were very hard up.

PRONOMBRES REFLEXIVOS

Se forman para primeras y segundas personas con el adjetivo posesivo añadiendole -self (singular) o -selves (plural); y para las terceras con el pronombre personal de complemento más -self o selves: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, (singular) ourselves, yourselves, themselves (plural):

Usos:

Como objeto de un verbo cuando el sujeto y el objeto del verbo son la misma persona. Sirve para convertir todos los verbos en verbos reflexivos:

I cut myself yesterday when I was having a shave.

Did you hurt yourself when you fell doown?

Se utilizan después de preposiciones cuando el sujeto del verbo y el objeto de la preposición es la misma persona:

What did you say? Nothing, I was talking to myself.

Mary looked at herself in the mirror.

Se usan también para enfatizar nombres y pronombres, por tanto se coloca después del

nombre o pronombre al que dan énfasis. En inglés hablado suelen ir al final de frase:

I don´t soeak Spanish myself. Do you?

Arthur himself cooked the dinner.

HACER COMPARACIONES

AS ... AS // NOT SO ... AS:

Con as ... as se pueden compara cosas, personas o acciones. Se usa tanto con adjetivos con con adverbios. Cuando la comparación es negativa se puede cambiar por not so ... as, aunque en inglés hablado se prefiere utilizar la primera fórmula:

The living-room was almost as bad as the kitchen.

Painting is not so difficult as papering.

Jumbo Jets don´t fly as fast as Concordes.

AS con MUCH/MANY se utiliza tanto con nombres como con pronombres:

Nombre: As much money; As many people; As many of the questions.

Pronombres: As much of it; As many of them (the questions)

You have got aas much of it (pintura) on the floor as you have on the wall.

He earns as much money as his two brothers put together.

AS ... AS + CLAUSE:

El segundo as va seguido de una oración subordinada. Generalmente se emplea con adverbios, aunque puede emplearse también con adjetivos:

He writes Russian as well as he speaks it.

As fast I put it in, it falls out again.

She is as tall as she is thin.

AS ... AS en símiles:

Los símiles son frases hechas, por lo que hay que procurar no transliterar, puesto que difieren de uno a otros idiomas y puede resultar negativo. Hay que expresar todo el conjunto. Si no se sabe la comparación u ofrece alguna duda se recurre a la estructura que vale para cualquier símil: as ... as anything:

As heavy as lead As drunk as a lord

As light as a feather As white as a sheet

As strong as an ox As soft as putty

As weak as a kitten As sour as vinager

As cold as ice As black as night

As quiet as a mouse As clean as a new pin/whistle

As pretty as a picture As deaf as a post/wall

As brave as a lion As quick as a flash/lightening

As proud as a peacock As ugly as sin

As pale as a ghost As old as the hills

As mad as a March hare As poor as church

As easy as ABC As fresh as a daisy

As obstinate as a mule As ... as anything

GET SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING

Get + Object + To-infinitive significa persuadir a alguien, convencer. Si el objeto es una cosa significa causar, provocar que esa cosa suceda:

We couldn´t get the car to move because of the mud.

They were determined to get the Department of Environment to think again.

I got our new M.P. to ask a question in the House.

MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING

Make + Object + Infinitive (sin TO) tiene más el significado de imponer, forzar, obligar que de persuadir:

Do you think you can make the ministry change their minds?

Those people in Essex managed to make them think again.

ALL + CLAUSE

All seguido de una oración subordinada tiene dos significados:

The only thing cuando sujeto o complemento del verbo TO BE:

All he wanted to do was to go to bed.

This is all that one has to pay.

All you need is love.

Everything (todo) cuando se utiliza como complemento de cualquier otro verbo o después de preposición. Existe la excepción de un refrán, que se construye

con el verbo TO BE y significa todo (último ejemplo):

He told me all I wanted to know.

After all that had happened I was tired out.

ALL THE GLITTERS IS NOT GOLD. - (refrán)

TAIL QUESTIONS o QUESTION-TAGS

Llamamos question-tags o tail questions en inglés a aquellas preguntas breves que añadimos aun comentario para pedir a nuestro intelocutor la confirmación de lo que decimos.

Su uso es muy frecuente, especialmente en la lengua hablada y su correspondencia en español es: ¿verdad?; ¿no es verdad?; ¿verdad que si?; verdad que no?

En inglés estas preguntas siempre se hacen con los auxiliares. Cuando hay un verbo auxiliar en la frase, se repite éste, y es otro verbo cualquiera se emplea do, does, did; en cualquier caso el sujeto es siempre un pronombre o there si la oración es impersonal.

Si la oración es afirmativa, la pregunta que hacemos es nagativa, y al contrario:

You can speak English, can´t you?

Mary´s parents live in Middleford, don´t they?

You got up early, didn´t you?

Lo mismo que el sujeto siempre tiene que ser un pronombre o there, el auxiliar en interrogonegativa siempre tiene que ir contraido; y como la primera persona del presente del verbo to be “am” no se puede contraer con “not”, pasa a la segunda forma del verbo:

I am a student, aren´t I?

También la question-tag del imperativo se hace con “will”:

Close the window, will you?

Repetir lo que ya se sabe

Este tipo siempre es afirmativa, indiferentemente de uqe el verbo principal vaya en afirmativa o negativa, en donde el hablante se limita a repetir o confirmar algo que ya sabe. Va a menuda precedida de “so” y la entonaciónes en sentido creciente:

You´re Mr Newton, are you?

So you know the sort of things we make, do you?

Ponerse de acuerdo con alguien

En este tipo la entonación es decreciente y la question tag es afirmativa o negativa según el verbo principal. El auxiliar del verbo principal se acentúa y si no hay auxiliar hay que ponerlo:

• Arthur looks smart today.

Yes, he does look smart, doesn´t he?

• He must have bought a new suit.

Yes, he must, mustn´t he?

• Jack isn´t very friendly today.

No, he isn´t very friendly, is he?

Cuando se está casi seguro de la respuesta

Aquí el auxiliar también debe acentuarse, o añadirlo en caso de que no lo hubiese. La entonación es decreciente:

You are coning to my party, aren´t you?

Stalin did die in 1951, didn´t he?

Napoleon wasn´t born in Sardinia, was he?

Cuando se está completamente seguro de la respesta

Aquí el auxiliar del verbo principal no se acentúa. La quention-tag tiene entonación decreciente y el hablante está bastante seguro de los hechos o quiere simplemente confirmación:

Bruce was sent to prison for armed robbery, wasn´t he?

Applefield is near Reading, isn´t it?

Cuando se busca una respuesta de SI o NO

Estas quetion-tags son dichas con entonación creciente y el hablante es pera la respuesta de “si” si la question-tag es negativa o “no” si es afirmativa:

Arthur took the job, didn´t he?

He won´t go back to Middleford, will he?

ORACIONES CONDICIONALES

Las oraciones condicionales se clasifican en diferentes tipos de acuerdo con la correspondencia temporal ente la oración condicional introducida por la partícula IF y el tiempo en que vaya la oración principal:

If you study, you pass your exams.

If we hurried, we shall catch the 10 o´clock train.

If we hurried, we would catch the 10 o´clock train.

If we had hurried, we would have caught the 10 o´clock train.

Los ejemplos dados representan los tres tipos más usuales de oraciones condicionales en inglés.

Los ejemplos 1 y 2 corresponden a las oraciones condicionales que llamamos probables, posibles, reales o de validez general, es decir, aquella en que se cumple la condición.

El ejemplo 3 corresponde al tipo de oraciones improbables o hipotéticas; es menos probable que la condición se realice; puede o no realizarse.

El ejemplo número 4 es el que corresponde a las oraciones llamadas imposibles; la condición no puede cumplirse de ninguna manera.

La secuencia de los tiempos para cada uno de los tipos es el siguiente:

1.- Oraciones Posibles

Oración Condicional	Oración Principal
PRESENTE If you study, PRESENTE If you study, PRESENTE If you study, PRESENTE If you want to pass your exams	PRESENTE you pass your exams FUTURO you will pass your exams Auxiliar modal en presente + Infinitivo de presente si to you can pass your exams IMPERARIVO Study

2.- Oraciones Improbables

Oración Condicional	Oración Principal
PASADO SIMPLE If you studied, PASADO SIMPLE If you studied,	CONDICIONAL SIMPLE You would pass your exams Auxiliar modal en pasado + Infinitivo de presente sin to you could pass your exams

3.- Oraciones Imposibles

Oración Condicional	Oración Principal
PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPRFECTO If you had studied, PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO If you had studied,	CONDICIONAL COMPUESTO You would have passed your exams Auxiliar modal en pasado + Infinitivo de perfecto sin to you could have passed your exams

Observaciones:

1.- En el tipo 1 de las correspondencias temporales de presente, es el único caso en que if puede ser sustituido por when, con lo que se denomina condición abierta, de validez general, es decir, que siempre se da:

When you study, you pass the exams.

2.- En el tipo 2 de condicional cuando se trate del Pasado Simple del verbo to be, hay que poner were para todas las personas (subjuntivo):

If I were you, I would study much harder.

3.- En el tipo 1 de condicional cabe la posibilidad de utilizar en la oración condicional el defectivo should, que en este caso nada tiene que ver con que sea auxiliar de condicional sino que el significado es: por si acaso:

If I should go, you will come with me.

4.- En estos dos últimos casos, al igual que con el Pluscuamperfecto del tipo 3 de condicional tenemos la posibilidad de omitir if al invertir el orden del sujeto y del verbo sin que la oración pierda su matiz de condicional:

Así en vez de decir: podriamos decir:

If I were you, ... Were I you, ...

If I should go, ... Should I go, ...

If you had studied, ... Had you studied, ...

Por último hay otras conjunciones y giros que pueden introducir oraciones condicionales, aparte de la partícula if, por ejemplo: unless, as long as, provid, providing that, even if, supposing (that):

You can come provided you tell your mother first.

We won´t leave the town unless they send us away.

Supposing the plane is late?

Tenemos que hacer notar que unless es sinónimo de if not, Normalamente se utiliza en el primer tipo de condicional:

I won't give you a ticket unless you pay me.

As long as and providing that significan lo mismo que but if only if. Se utilizan normalmente en el primer tipo de condicional:

They'll find the hotel as long as they follow the map

Even if significa lo mismo que if, pero enfatiza la condición. Se puede usar para referirse al pasado, present y futuro:

Even if we had ordered a taxi, we wouldn't have arrived on time.

El Verbo: TO SUGGEST

Suggest significa sugerir y se emplea para hacer sugerencias. Tiene varias estructuras:

Si suggest va en presente puede ir seguido por simple indicativo o that-should, es decir, por una oración completiva con that:

Mr Steele suggests (that) Arthur works harder.

Mr Steele suggests (that) Arthur should work harder.

Si suggest va en pasado solo puede ir seguido por that-should o por gerundio (la forma -ing) que también puede ir precedida por adjetivo posesivo, aunque existe también la forma coloquial que en vez de ir precedida la forma -ing por adjetivo posesivo puede ir precedia por pronombre personal de complemento (aunque gramaticalmente es incorrecto):

Mr Steele suggested Arthur should work harder.--> (forma literaria)

Mr Steele suggested his working harder. --> (forma standard)

Mr Steele suggested him working harder. --> (forma coloquial)

She suggested that they should meet at the cinema

She suggested their meeting at the cinema.

She suggested them meeting at the cinema.

LA VOZ PASIVA

La Voz Pasiva en inglés se forma con el verbo to be en el tiempo correspondiente y el participio pasado del verbo que se conjuga.

La Voz Pasiva se emplea con mucha más frecuencia en inglés que en español: Su uso nos permite colocar al principio de la oración, como sujeto, al complemento de una oración activa para darle más realce, pues siempre es la primera palabra de una frase la que mayor efectoppsicológico presente:

“Moll Flanders” was written by Henry Fielding.

En este ejemplo nos ineteresa hacer notar el hecho de que “Moll Falnders”, y no otro libro, fué escrito por Henry Fielding; por eso empleamos la voz pasiva: por el contrario si quisieramos hablar de Hrmry Fielding diríamos:

Henry Fielllding wrote “Moll Flanders”

Como en las oraciones pasivas el sujeto es el complemento directo de la oración activa, solo los verbos transitivos se pueden poner en pasiva. Todos los tiempos de la voz activa tienen sus correspondientes tiempos en la voz pasiva, aunque algunos, los continuos sobre todo, se usan muy raramente.

He gives ----------> He is given

He is giving ------> He is being given

He will give ------> He will be given

He has given ----> He has been given

Transformaciones:

Esta es igual a la española, se da en las oraciones transitivas formadas por sujeto + verbo + complemento directo:

C.D. activo ----------------> Sujeto pasivo

Verbo activo ----------------> Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo)

Sujeto activo ----------------> Complemento Agente (con by)

Arthur bought a book A book was bought by Arthur.

Se da en las oraciones transitivas que aparte de llevar complemento directo, llevan también complemento indirecto, normalmente este complemento indirecto siempre es de persona, por lo que pasa a ser sujeto en la pasiva:

C.ID. activo ----------------> Sujeto pasivo

Verbo activo ----------------> Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo)

C.D. activo ----------------> Queda igual (no cambia)

Sujeto activo ----------------> Complemento Agente (con by)

Arthur bought Mary a book Mary was bought a book by Arthur.

Se da en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en función de complemento directo; es tipicamente inglesa y sigue la siguiente estructura:

Sujeto de la subordinada Sujeto pasivo

Verbo de la principal Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo)

Sujeto de la principal Complemento Agente

de presente (acción simultanea o posterior)

Verbo de la subordinada Infinitivo con to

de perfecto (acción anterior)

Act. They expected that everyone attended Solidarity Services.

Pas. Everyone was expected to attend Solidariry Services.

Es la que coincide con la española en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en función de complemento directo, se hace poniendo en pasiva la oración principal dejando igual la oración subordinada sustantiva, que es la fórmula que tenemos en español, y se emplea principalmente con los verbos de dicción o pensamiento, que es forma de traducir el morfema pasivo español se de la pasiva refleja. No obstante se prefiere la transformación del apartado c) en inglés.

Act. They say that Mary is the most beautiful girl in the school

Pas. It is said (by them) that Mary is the most beautiful girl in the school. c) Mary is said to be the most beautiful girl in the school.

NOTA: Cuando el sujeto de la activa es un pronombre personal, pronombre indefinido o un sustantivo no limitado ni determinado no suele ponerse en inglés de Complemento Agente; sin embargo si es un nombre propio o un sustantivo determinado hay que ponerlo como Complemento Agente (con by) en la pasiva.

REPORTED SPEECH

Hay dos formas de informar lo que una persona ha dicho:

ESTILO DIRECTO: las palabras exactas dichas por el hablante original que son repetidas y situadas entre comillas (“”). (Poniendo dos puntos (:) o coma (,) antes de las comillas):

John said, “I enjoy playing cricket”

He said, “I am learning English”

ESTILO INDIRECTO (Reported Speech):

• Expresar el significado exactos sin utilizar las palabras originales del hablante.

• La frase del estilo indirecto se convierte en el complemento directo gramatical del verbo introductor:

John said that he enjoyed playing cricket.

He said that he was learning English.

HE SAID = REPORTING CLAUSE (frase introductora)

REST = REPORTED CLAUSE (frase del estilo indirecto)

Los tipos principales de oraciones ( Oraciones subordinadas sustantivas (Statements), Preguntas (Questions), Mandatos (Commands), como tmbién Exclaciones (Exclamations) se pueden expresar en estilo indirecto. Las construcciones son como sigue:

I) STATEMENTS ( “That-clause”)

A) Cambios de tiempos Verbales. Varios casos:

Cuando el verbo introductor esta en presente simple, pretérito perfecto o futuro, la oración directa se hace sin efectuar ningun cambio de tiempo verbal:

He says/will say/has said, “This work is too difficult”

“ “ “ “ “ “ that this work is too difficult.

Pero cuando el verbo introductir está en un tiempo verbal en pasado, que es lo normal, es normal que el verbo de la frase indirecta pase a un tiempo verbal anterior, lo que se denomina en inglés BACK-SHIFT (=cambio a una referencia temporal anterior). Dos tipos posibles de back-shift:

PRESENTE (NOW) a PASADO (THEN)

Presente “ Pasado

Preteriro Perfecto “ Pretérito Pluscuamperfecto

Presente de defectivos “ Pasado de defectivos

PASADO (THEN) a PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO (BEFORE THEN)

PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO (BEFORE THEN) No back-shift (no es posible ningun cambio a tiempo anterior porque en Inglés no hay ningún modo de expresar BEFORE-BEFORE-THEN ni en tiempo ni aspecto verbal.

CAMBIOS: en la oración de estilo indirecto:

Simple Present ---------------- Simple Past

Simple Past--------------------- Past Perfect

Future shall/will --------------- Conditional should/would

Present Progressive---------- Past Progressive

Present Perfect---------------- Past Perfect

DOS POSIBILIDADES DE BACK-SHIFT

Presente---------------------------Pasado

Pasaso-----------------------------Preterito Pluscuamperefcto

“I am tired” she complained that she was tired.

“I love cricket” he said that he loved cricket.

“He is being a fool” Everybody thought that he was being a fool.

“I saw them yesterday” She told me that she had seen them yesterday.

Presente Pasado Pluscuamperfecto

E.D. NOW THEN BEFORE THEN

E.I. THEN (pasado) BEFORE THEN (Pluscuamperfecto) (Nothing at all)

E.D. “Max had already gone when I phoned him this morning”

E.I. Jim said that Max had already gone when he phoned that morning”

Explicación del BACK-SHIFT: el tiempo de la oración original, que sea presente NOW para el estilo directo, pasa a ser pasado THEN para el estilo indirecto y se está en pasado THEN pasa a pluscuamperfecto BEFORE THEN haciendo el cambio respecto al PUNTO DE ORIENTACION.

EXCEPTIONS:

Cuando lo expresado por la oración de estilo indirectohe idea coincide en tiempo y hora con lo expresado en estilo directo (o el estado de cosas reflejadas todavía existe en el momento de hablar), no hay necesidad de hacer cambios en los tiempos verbales. Es decir, cunado el evrbo introductor está en tiempo pasado, el tiempo presente se mantiene en la oración del estilo indirecto cuando exprese una verdad universal ( o una generalidad exacta, verdades generales o hechos habituales).

Socrates said: “ Virtue is knowledge”

Socrates said that virtue is knowledge.

Peter said: “The moon is 50.000 miles away”

Peter said that the moon is 50.000 miles away.

Jim said: “I eat at two o'clock everyday”

Jim said that he eats at two o'clock everyday.

El Back-shift desde Pasado Simple / Pasado Continuo a Preterito Pluscuamperfecto puede también no aplicarse en las oraciones causales, si de algun modo cambia el significado de la frase en aspecto verbal, aunque generalmente el pasado pasa a pluscuamperfecto:

She said:”I decided not to buy the house because it was in the main road”

She said that she had decided not to buy the house because it was in the main road.

El Pasado y el Pasado Continuo no cambia en las oraciones temporales:

He said: “When we were living in London, we had a lot of friends”

He said that when they were living in London, they had a lot of friends.

Auxiliares Modales: WOULD, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, MIGHT, USED TO, COULD, MUST (ind.), HAD BETTER normalmente no cambian:

He said: “I might be there”

He said that he might be there.

She said:”I would help him if I could”

She said that she would help him if she could.

MUST (como Obligación) puede cambiar también a HAD TO:

She said:”You must go”

She said that you must/had to go.

SHOULD (after I/We) se cambia a WOULD, pero cuando implica Obligacion permanece sin cambio:

He said:”I should be grateful if I ...”

He said that he would be grateful if he ....

I said:”You should be more careful”

I told him that he should be more careful.

He said:”If my children were older I should emigrate”

He said that if his children were older he would emigrate.

Oraciones Condicionales del tipo 2 permanecen también invariables. Como también lo hacen los Tiempos Pasado (= subjunctive) utilizados después de WISH, IT IS TIME, WOULD RATHER ...

He said:”I wish I knew”

He said that he wished he knew.

She said:”I´d rather Tom went”

She said that she'd rather Tom went.

Otros cambios que son necesarios cuando se pasa de Estilo Directo a Indirecto:

La conjunción that se puede poner inmeditamente después del verbo introductor, pero no es esencial y muy a menudo se suprime.

C) Los Pronombres y Adjetivos Posesivos generalmente cambian de 1st o 2nd a 3rd persona (excepto cuando el hablante está informando con sus propias palabraas); es decir, cuando el verbo de la frase del estilo indirecto tiene el mismo sujeto que el verbo de la frase de estilo directo:

I said:”I like my new house”

I said that I liked my new house.

He said:”I have forgotten the combination of my safe”

He said that he had forgotten the combination of his safe.

Algunas veces se le puede añadir un nombre para evitar ambigüedad:

Tom said:”He came in through the window”

Tom said that the thief had come in through the window.

Palabras que se refieren a LUGAR y TIEMPO y denoten cercanía pasa a sus correspondientes palabras que denoten lejanía. Si el estilo Indirecto se hace en el mismo día a lugar estos cambios no son necesarios:

thisthat herethere

thesethose tomorrowthe next day/the day after

nowthen yesterdaythe day before/the previous day

agobefore the day before yesterdaytwo days before

todaythat day the day after tomorrowin two days' time

We met at the bridge and he said:”I'll be here again tomorrow”

We met at the bridge and he said that he'd be there again the next day.

• If the speech is reporting on the same day, these changes aren't necessary:

At breakfast this morning he said:”I'll be very busy today”

At breakfast this morning he said that he'll be very busy today.

II) QUESTIONS (Wh-clauses)

Las reglas anteriores se aplican también a las preguntas indirectas; sin embargo hay unos puntos adicionales que hay que significar o tener en cuenta:

El verbo introductior SAY se cambia a ASK o algun verbo similar de acuerdo a lo que intentemos querer decir: INQUIRED/WONDERED/WANTED TO KNOW ...

La palabra de unión de la frase del verbo introductor con la frase del estilo indirecto es IF or WHETHER, excepto cuando las preguntas directas empiecne con unpronombre o partícula interrogativa tales como WHO/ WHY/ WHAT/ WHERE/ HOW /WHEN... etc. que será la que haga de unión.

La estructura interrogativa de las preguntas directas se reemplaza por la CONSTRUCCION AFIRMATIVA en el Estilo Indirecto; tanto los auxiliares DO/DOES/DID cono el SIGNO de INTERROGACIÓN se omiten:

• “Do you live here?”

He asked me if I lived there.

• “Did you go to England last year?”

The teacher asked the student if he had gone to England the previous year.

• He said:”I have left my watch at home. Can you tell me the time, please?”

He said that he had left his watch at home and asked me (politely) if I could tell him the time.

• “Does Peter speak Spanish?”

He asked if Peter spoke Spanish.

• “What's your name?”

He asked her what her name was.

• “Which chair shall I sit in?”

He wonderedwhich chair he should sit in.

IF/WHETHER.- El uso generalmente favorece a IF cuandoquiera que la distinción entre ellos no sea necesaria:

He asked me if (or whether) I had seen the film.

WHETHER expresa una duda o una elección entre dos alternativas así muy a menudo va seguido de OR:

“Is it your turn or Susan's?”

She asked whether it was his turn or Susan's.

WHETHER (y no IF) se utiliza en:

Cuando la pregunta indirecta precede a la oración principal:

Whether this is true or not, I cannot say.

Delante de un INFINITIVO:

She hasn't decided whether to sail or fly to America.

He wondered whether to leave.

Cuando introduce una Oración Concesiva:

Whether he works or not, I don't think he will pass his/the exam.

Las preguntas que empiezan con SHALL I/WE pueden ser de cuatro formas:

Pueden ser especulaciones acerca del futuro o pueden pedir información de algun acontecimiento futuro también. estas preguntas siguen la Regla Ordinaria (shallwould). El verbo introductor es normalmente: WONDER

Las Especulaciones son normalmente introducidas por WONDER:

• “Where shall I be (this time) next year?”

He wondered whre he would be in a year's time

• “When shall I know the results of the test?”

The student asked when he would know the results of the test.

• “Shall I ever understand women?”

He asked himself if he would ever understand women.

Ofrecimientos: El verbo introductor es: OFFER

• “Shall I bring you a cup of tea?”

He offered to bring me a cup of tea or

He offered me a cup of tea.

Sugerencias: Verbo introductor: SUGGEST + that-should o -ING

• “Shall we meet at the theatre?”

He suggested that they should meet at the theatre. (formal)

meeting at the theatre.

their meeting at the theatre. (standard)

them meeting at the theatre. (colloquial)

Petición de instrucciones o consejo: alternativa WAS/WERE TO

• “Shall we send it to your flat, Sir?”

He asked the customer if they should send it to his flat.

were to send it to his flat.

• “What shall we do with your mail while you're away?”

His landlady asked Paul what she should do with his mail while he was away.

what she was to do with his mail while he was away .

WILL YOU/WOULD YOU/COULD YOU

Preguntas Ordinarias:

He said: “Will you be here tomorrow?”

He asked her if she would be there the following day.

Peticiones: ASK + Object + To-infinitive

He said, “Will you help me, please?”

He asked me (politely) to help him

Invitacion/Ofrecimiento: verbo tansitivo OFFER

He said, “Will you have a drink?”

He offered me a drink.

Mandatos: Depende de la entonación:

“Will you be quiet for a moment !”

“Do be quiet for a moment !” He told them to be quiet

COMMANDS

Las reglas que afectan a pronombres, adjetivos y otros cambios también se pueden aplicar a los mandatos indirectos, excepto que no hay backshif porque no hay verbos en forma personal (son oraciones subordinadas de infinitivo, que es una forma no personal)

Additional notes:

El vebro introductor SAY ... cambia a un verbo of MANDATO or PETICION tales como TELL/ORDER/COMMAND... de ascuerdo a la intención que queramos expresar:

My mother said to me: “Go home !”

My mother told me to go home.

Se tiene que introducir un Complemento Directo que representa la persona a la que va dirigida el mandato:

I was there and he said: “Stand up !”

I was there and he told me to stand up.

La forma imperativa del verbo en el mandato directo pasa a su corresponsdiente forma de infinitivo con to, si el mandato es negativo se le antepone NOT al infinitivo con to (Mandato Negativo = NOT + TO-INFINITIVE):

“Be quiet !” I told Peter to be quiet.

“Fire !” The captain ordered the soldiers to fire.

“Run quickly !” He told me (us) to run quickly.

“Put on you space-suits !”

He told/commanded/instructed them to put on their space-suits.

En inglés hay muchas posibilidades de expresar un mandato, for example: “WILL YOU?”

“Shut the door, will you?” (Es un mandato)

He told him to shut the door.

Es muy fuerte y dependede la entonación:

“Will you stop talking !”

The teacher told the students to stop talking.

Mandatos Negativos: NOT + TO-INFINITIVE

His friend said: “Don't be rude !”

His friend asked him not to be rude.

“Don't move, boys !” He told the boys not to move.

“Please, don't forget !” She begged me not to forget.

Otras formas de Estilo Indirecto de espresar Mandatos Indirectos:

1) La Construcción: To BE + TO-INFINITIVE

He said:”Don't open the door !”

He told me not to open the door or

He said that I was no to open the door.

a) El verbo introductor en tiempo presente:

He says:”Meet me at the station !”

He says that we are to meet at the station.

Mandato precedido po una oración subordinada:

Tiempo

Condicional

He said:”If she leaves the house follow her”

He told me to folllow her if she left the house or

He said that if she left the house I was to follow her.

EXCLAMATIONS:

Las Exclamaciones en el estilo indirecto pasan a ser Oraciones Subordinadas (that-clauses). Una exclamación es en cierto modo una oración:

What como un determinante en un frase nominal.

How como gradación con adjectivo/adverbio.

“What a beautiful present !” He said that it was a beautiful present

“What a lovely house !” He said that it was a lovely house.

“What a terrible noise !” He said that it was a terrible noise.

“What a different situation she is in !” He said that she was in different situation.

“How marvellous !” He said that it was marvellous.

“How beautiful she dances !” He said that she danced beautiful.

Para expresar emcionesse utilizan INTERJECCIONES:

“Ugh !” /Λx/ (disgust)

“Oh !” /Ou/ (surprise)

“Ouch !”/∂υt/ (pain)

He gave an exclamation of disgust/surprise/pain.

He exclaimed with disgust/surprise/pain.

Otros casos no tienen reglas y todo depende del significado de la exclamación:

He said:”Good morning” He greeted me/wished me a good morning.

He said:”HappyChristmas” He wished me a Happy Christmas.

He said:”Liar” He called me a liar.

He said:”Congratulations” He congratulated me.

He said:”Damn !” He swore

Dos casos especiales: PLEASE y THANK YOU

“I should like some tea, please !” (please is not use in R.S.)

He said politely that he would like some tea or

He asked politely for some tea.

He said:”Thank you”

He thanked me.

LET'S/LET HIM/LET HER/LET THEM.-

Genralmente expresan una sugerencia y se hace con el verbo SUGGEST en Estilo Indirecto. Hay otras varias formas de expresar sugerencia: What about ... etc.

Se utiliza el verbo SUGGEST como verbo introductor seguido de:

-ING form (precedida de una adjetivo posesivo o pronombre personal)

That-clause with SHOULD

He said:” Let´s have a good breakfast !”

He suggested their having a good breakfast. (standard English)

He suggested them having a good breakfast. (spoken English)

He suggested that they should have a good breakfast (formal English)

He said:”Let´s wait here till the rain stops”

He suggested their waiting there till the rain stopped.

He suggested that they should wait till the rain stopped.

Formas Negativas:

He said:”Let´s not say anything about it”

He suggested their not saying anything about it.

He suggested that they should not say anything about it.

Otras formas de expresar SUGERENCIAS:

What about + -ING: “What about going to the cinema this evening”

He suggested going to the cinema that evening.

Shall + 1st person

How about + -ING form

Do you feel like + -ING

Suppose + simple present.

YES/NO ANSWERS:

Se expresan en el estilo Indirect con SUJETO + verbo auxiliar apropiado:

He said:”Can you swim?” and I said: “No”

He asked me if I could swim and I said that I couldn't.

He said:”Do you like it?” and she said:”Yes”

He asked her if she liked it and she answered that she did.

Yes/No: se pone en el estilo indirecto con el auxiliar solo, y la negación si la contestación es No:

“Would you be here for the next ten minutes?” she said, and I said:”Yes”

She asked if I would be there for the following ten minutes and I answered that I would.

MIXED TYPES: (Question + Statement or Command), poco a poco:

• “I don't know the way, do you?”, he asked

He said that he didn't know the way and asked me if I did.

• “You pressed the button”, said the mechanic. “Don't do it again. You might have a nasty accident”.

She had pressed the button and the mechanic told her (warned her) not to do it again because (as) she might have a nasty accident.

• “Could you show me to work it? I'm not used to electric typewriter's”, she said

She asked me if I could show her to work it as (adding that/ explaining that) she wasn't used to electric typewriter's

• “Ugh ! there is a slug in my lettuce, writer !”, she cried

She gave an exclamation of /she exclaimed with/ disgust because (that) there was a slug in her lettuce and cried for the waiter.

• “What about going for a swim. It is quite fine now”, he said

He suggested going for a swim because it was quite fine then.

FREE INDIRECT SPEECH.-

Un recurso muy común en la narrativa.

Consiste en expresar una oración poniendo el verbo en un tiempo anterior mientras se omite (o se pone entre parentesis) las oraciones del verbo introductor, que son las siglas convencionales E.I.

Los pronombres y tiempos verbales se cambian como en el estilo indirecto normal, pero por otra parte la estructura permanece como en el E.D. (se mantiene la inversion) porque no hay verbo introductor.

Es un medio más flexible para expresarse que el normal (=dependent) E.I., más concision: nada de he said, he exclaimed ...

es utilizado por Virginia Wolf, James Joice etc.

Mary, “Why do they always have to pick on me?” -------------- D.S.

Mary asked why did they always have to pick on her? --------- R.S.

Why did they always (grooned Mary) have to pick on her? --- F.I.S.

or Why did they always have to pick on her? ------------------------ F.I.S.

RELATIVES CLAUSES

Pronombres Relativos

	Personas	Cosas
Nom.	WHO (THAT)	WHICH (THAT)
Ac.	WHOM (THAT)	WHICH (THAT)
Gen.	WHOSE	WHOSE(*)

(*) El pronombre WHOSE tiende a ser utilizado solamente para personas, aunquegramaticalmente es correcto utilizarlo también para cosas cada día este uso esmenos frecuente recurriendo a otras estructuras para evitar usarlo:

En vez de This film whose tittle is "Lipstick" is quite good.

Diríamos This film the tittle of which is "Lipstick" is quitegood.

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES.-

Estas oraciones llamadas también RESTRICTED son las oraciones ESPECIFICATIVAS en español, que identifican o establecen la identidad del ANTECEDENTE:

Paul found the book (which) you lost

This is the room where the tragedy ocurred.

Las personas o cosas se distinguen por la oración especificativa, la que da una información esencial del antecedente y no pueden ser omitida porque cambiaría el sentido general de la frase, igual ocurre en español.

El relativo THAT solo se puede usar en las DEFINING (especificativas), tanto de SUJETO como de OBJETO, sustituyendo a personas y a cosas.

This is the driver who/that overtook us five minutes ago.

Cuando el pronombre relativo no es sujeto de la oración generalmente se omite (principalmente en inglés hablado) dando lugar a las CONTACT.

The man (whom/who/that) I saw yesterday is a lawyer.

Cuando es sujeto de la oración no se puede omitir, excepto si va con un tiempo continuo o pasivo, que al suprimir el pronombre relativo también hay queomitir el verbo "TO BE" quedando solo el Participio de presente (en tiemposcontinuos) o el Participio de pasado (en tiempos pasivos).

The boy (who is) walking along the street is my cousin.

The church (which was) built in the 19th century has beautiful windows.

Ni el pronombre WHO ni THAT ni WHOSE admiten preposiciones delante de ellos, así que quellos verbos que rigen preposición, ésta siempre se pone al final de la oración de relativo.

This is the book (contact) he looked at.

En estilo formal o literario la preposición puede preceder al pronombre WHOM o WHICH, pero nunca a los del apartado anterior (WHO, THAT o WHOSE):

The people from whom they had hired the car wanted it to be returned:

No obstante algunas preposiciones no pueden ser postpuestas especialamente aquellas preposiciones que tienen que ver con nociones temporales:

That was the meeting (that) I kept falling asleep during (incorrect).

That was the meeting during which I kept falling asleep (correct).

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES.-

Estas oraciones llamadas también NON-RESTRICTED son las oraciones EXPLICATIVAS en español, que no definien ni restringen el ANTECEDENTE:

Mr Smith, who is an ingeneer, lives in Oxford.

The Victoria Line, which was open in March 1969, was London first

complete new tube for 60 years.

No definen ni distinguen al antecedente sino que solamente dan una información adicional del antecedente. Van siempre entre comas y aunque se precinda de ellas no cambia el sentido general de la frase, igual ocurre en español.

Peter has a sister, who works at the U.N. headquarters in Geneve.(implica que

solo tiene una hermana).

Observaciones:

No se puede usar nunca el pronombre THAT.

Se pueden dividir en dos oraciones.

Van siempre entre comas.

El pronombre relativo no se puede suprimir nunca aunque no sea el sujeto de la oración, si es persona WHO (sujeto)/WHOM (objeto) y si es cosa WHICH:

Liz Taylor, who acted in Anthony and Cleopatra, judged the competition.

The London train, which should arrive at 2.30, is ten minutes late.

George Sand spent many holidays in Majorca with Chopin, whom she first met

in Paris.

The headmaster has recently been to Canada, which he described in detail

in a lecture.

Tipos de pronombres relativos:

Pronombres relativos como sujeto:

On the sunny days which/that began their holiday, they really appreciated the peace and quiet.

Pronombres relativos como objeto: se pueden suprimir en las especificativas:

Jennifer was home for one of the few weekends (which/that) she had during his training.

Pronombres relativos con preposición; éstas van al final de la oración de relativo:

The man (who/that) I worked for isn´t the most generous man in the world.

WOSE siempre precede a la cosa poseida:

The girl whose foot you trod on happens to be my girlfriend.

WHERE (in which), en estos contextos actua como adverbio relativo:

Trust Arthur to find the one place where it had been raining.

WHY:

Surely the reason why he stole the money is obvious.

Adverbio relativo: BEFORE:

On the eveing before they were due to live, Arthur telephoned his mother.

Adverbio relativo: AFTER:

It began to rain during the week after they arrived.

ORACIONES TEMPORALES

Las oraciones temporales son las introducidas por las conjunciones: when, as soon as, whenever, after, before, as, while, until, etc...

Se clasifican en inglés en tres tipos de acuerdo a la correspondencia verbal:

Oraciones temporales referidas al presente:

Correspondencias verbales

Oración Principal Simple Present

Oración Temporal Simple Present

Mary takes her umbrella with her when it rains.

Arthur has his supper as soon as he gets home.

I turn the radio off whenever they play pop.

Oraciones temporales referidas al pasado:

Oración Principal Simple Past Simple Past Past Perfect Simple Past Past Progresive

Oración Temporal Simple Past Past Prefect Simple Past Past Progressive Simple Past

I turned the TV on when I got home.

Mr Steele went to the office as soon as he arrived.

Mary had already left before Arthur arrived.

We saw an accident as/when we were going to work.

I was listening to the radio when the telephone rang.

Oraciónes temporales referidas al futuro:

Present Continuous Future Going to form Auxiliar modal en prsente

Simple Present Simple Present Present Perfect Present Perfect

I´m going to have a bath when I get home tonight.

I´ll do my homework before I go to bed.

Arthur can´t go home until he has finished work.

We´re going out as soon as we´ve had dinner.

Observaciones:

Cuando se usa el pasado simple en las dos oraciones indica que la segunda acción sigue inmediatamente a la primera.

Cuando se utiliza en alguna de ellas el pasado perfecto o pluscuamperfecto, es cuando nos referimos a una acción anterior a otra acción pasada.

Cuando se utilizan pasados continuos en las dos nos indica que las dos acciones son

simultaneas.

Nota importante: La subordinada temporal nunca puede ir en TIEMPO FUTURO.

ORACIONES FINALES

Hay dos tipos de oraciones finales en inglés:

Aquellas en las que el sujeto de la oración principal es el mismo que el de la subordinada, o en las que el complemento directo de la oración principal es el sujeto de la subordinada.

Las que tienen sujetos distintos (diferentes), es decir que el sujeto de la oración principal es distinto del de la oración subordinada.

El primer tipo de oraciones se suele expresar por madio del infinitivo con to o bien con in order o so as seguidos del infinitivo con to:

I went ro London to see you.

That boy is working hard in order to pass his exam.

In order y so as se emplean cuando la oración final es negativa y cuando el complemento de la oración principal (si es una persona) no es el sujeto de la subordinada:

I have taken my umbrella so as not to get wet.

Yesterday John took his brother to the cinema so as to feel less lonely.

La segunda clase de oraciones se expresan con so that + will/would o can/could o may/might o shall/should + infinitivo sin to y con in order that + may/might o shall/should + infinitivo sin to.

Las formas verbales can, will, may (raramente shall) se emplean cuando el verbo principal está en presente, futuro o pretérito perfecto. Si el verbo principal está en pasado se emplean could, would, might o should:

Peter has bought a car so that his children can go for a ride every Sunday.

She puts on the light so that they will able to read.

He learnt French so that his friends could be impressed.

Cuando las oraciones son negativas, se expresa del mismo modo, poniendo el verbo auxiliar en negativa:

He finished his homework so that his father wouldn´t be able to punish him.

Pero más frecuenta que esta fórmula de negación es el uso de to prevent o avoid from, seguidos de gerundio (-ing):

He lent us some mney to prevent us from going to the bank.

POSITION OF ADVERBS

Adverbs of MANNER

a) Adverbs of MANNER after a short object:

He repeated the word SLOWLY.

He explained the exercise CAREFULLY.

b) Adverbs of MANNER before a long object:

He repeated SLOWLY everything the teacher said.

He explained CAREFULLY what he wanted the students to do.

c) Adverbs of MANNER before the verb for emphasis:

He SLOWLY repeated all the words.

SLOWLY he repeated all the words.

He CAREFULLY explained what had to be done.

CAREFULLY he explained what had to be done.

Adverbs of INDEFINITE TIME

Adverbs of INDEFINITE TIME before the verb:

The king ALWAYS asked the same questions.

The students GENERALLY speak in English.

We NEVER see Dick nowadays.

The soldiers OFTEN came from countries far from Prussia.

They SOON learned enough to understand it.

Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME

a) Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME at the end:

I came here YESTERDAY. They left London EARLY.

The news came ONE MORNING. Say the sentences AGAIN.

This never happened BEFORE. We'll go back home TOMORROW.

b) Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME at the beginning, for emphasis:

YESTERDAY I came here. ONE MORNING the news came.

BEFORE this never happened. TOMORROW we shall go back home.

Adverbs between auxiliary and participle:

Such a thing had NEVER happened.

We had RECENTLY joined Frederick's army.

The king was ALWAYS shouting.

We have OFTEN been in London.

Adverbs of DEGREE

Adverbs of DEGREE before verb or participle:

The soldier HARDLY spoke German.

The king JUST asked a few simple questions.

The king NEARLY fell off his horse.

He could HARDLY speak.

Adverbs after "TO BE" not before:

We were NEVER happy in that town.

I am ALWAYS at home.

The young soldier was JUST twenty.

Jhon is SELDOM ill.

SUFFIXES

Suffixes (adjectives)

-FUL -LESS -Y -WARD (adj.) -WARDS (Adv.)

careful, fearful, hopeful,useful, beautiful. cloudy, foggy, hilly, noisy, rainy, stormy, sunny. careless, fearless, hopeless, useless. homeward, downward, upward, southward. homewards, downwards, upwards, southwards.

Suffixes (nouns)

-ER -OR -M AN -MAKER -IST -ETC.

baker, butcher, driver, painter, writer, builder actor, author, conductor, doctor, sailor, tailor. policeman, fireman, fisherman, businessman. dressmaker, shirtmaker, watchmaker, shoemaker. artist, dramatist, pianist, violinist. metal-worker, coachbuilder, shopkeeper, car-driver.

Suffixes (abstract nouns)

-DOM -HOOD -NESS

kingdom, freedom, wisdom, dukedom. childhood, manhood, fatherhood, neighbourhood. carefulness, happiness, hardness, likeness

Prefixes

= negative in several directions bad, badly too much too little

unable, unafraid, uncertain, uncommon, unhappy indistinct, impossible, illegal disagree, discontinue, dishonest, disloyal disperse, distend, display, disseminate. a mistake, a misdeed, a misunderstanding, to mislay to overeat, to overcharge, to overflow, to overload, to overestimate, to overheat, to overwork, to overdo. to underpay , to undercharge, to undervalue, to underestimate.

GLOSSARY - BACHILLERATOS

Aprobar un exámen = TO PASS

Aprobar, dar aprobación a algo, aprobar una medida = TO APPROVE (OF)

I passed the exam.

I approve the law.

Suspender un exámen = TO FAIL : I failed the exam.

Suspender, tener colgado algo = TO SUSPEND : I suspended the clothing.

Copiar un exámen, engañar = TO CHEAT : I cheated the exam.

Asignatura = SUBJECT: I have eight subjects.

Firma = SIGNATURE: I like your signature.

Firmar = TO SIGN: I signed the paper.

Año Académico = YEAR / LEVEL: I study 3rd year/level.

Cursillo = COURSE: I attended to English course. I haven't passed the course.

Carrera Universitaria = UNIVERSITY COURSE: He studies a University course.

Carrera Profesional = CAREER: This career is very (dangerous) difficult.

Carrera de correr = RACE: The race will be tomorrow.

Título Universitario = DEGREE: He has a degree.

Título de Bachiller / Licenciado = BACHELOR DEGREE: He has a bachelor degree.

Doctorado (Letras) MASTER OF ARTS // (Ciencias) MASTER OF SCIENCE

Your uncle is Master of Arts / Sciences

Catedrático = (Proffesor) DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY // PHILOSOPHY DOCTOR

His father is Doctor of Philosophy

Notas = MARKS/QUALIFICATIONS: Your marks are good

Hacer un exámen (lo hace el alumno) = TO TAKE: The pupil took an exam.

Hacer un exámen (lo prepara el profesor) = TO MAKE: The teacher made an exam.

Apuntes = NOTES: He lost his notes.

Presentarse a un exámen = TO SIT IN // TO SIT FOR: The pupil sat for an exam.

Deberes escolares = HOMEWORK: My son did his homework yesterday.

Tarea de casa = HOUSEWORK: My mother is making the housework.

Derecho(s) = RIGHT(S):

Deber(es) = DUTY/DUTIES: People have rights and duties.

Colegio Privado = Public/Private/Independent School: I study in a public school.

Colegio Público = STATE SCHOOL: He studies in a state school.

Guardería = NURSERY SCHOOL: In this nursery school there are few children.

Escuela Primaria = PRIMARY SCHOOL: The primary school starts at six years old.

Escuela Secundaria = SECONDARY SCHOOL: The secondary school starts at 11.

Selectividad=ADVANCED LEVEL EXAMINATION: I'll take the advanced level exams.

Educación Superior = HIGHER EDUCATION The higher education starts at 14.

UNIVERSIDAD:

- Ingenierias = Polytechnic: In Vigo there is a Polytechnic.

- Magisterio = College of Education: In Vigo there is a College of Education.

- Demás Carreras = University: In Vigo there is a University.

F.P. 2 Grado = College of Further Educaction In Vigo there is a College of .....

Formas de expresar la edad

He is 40. He is 40 years old. He is 40 years of age. He is about/around 40. He is about/around 40 years old. He is in his fourties (40-49) He is in his early fourties (40-45) He is in his late fourties (45-49) He is fourty something (40 y algo)

He is a baby ( 0 - 2) He is a child ( 2 - 8) He is a boy ( 8 - 14) He is a teenager ( 13 - 19) He is a young man ( 19 - 35) He is a middle-aged man ( 35 - 55) He is an elderly man (anciano)

False Friends

miserabe # miserable (triste)

No tiene donde caerse muerto = He is poor because he hasn't any money.

Eres un miserable, tacaño = You are a mean man and egoistic.

He is miserable (triste) because his father was dead.

Realize # realizar (= darse cuenta) // realizar = do/make/carry out/ perform

They realized that she was wrong.

They made a cake.

Actually # actualmente (= realmente) // actualmente = at present/currently/nowadays

in fact, indeed

Actually it is wonderful.

At present he is a singer.

Actual # actual (= real) // actual = modern/current/present/fashionable

The story is actual

It's a current issue (tema de actualidad).

Boring # bored, etc. adjs. (= aburrido =es aburrido // = aburrido=estar aburrido)

Story # history (cuento, (historieta) // historia (asignatura))

End # ending (fin/final) = finish,close,purpose,extremo // final, conclusion, desenlace

After # afterwards (prep, conj.// adverb.)

Know # meet (saber, conocer // encontrarse con, toparse con)

Exit # Success (salida // éxito)

Notice # News

Program / Programme

On the one hand / On the other hand

To realise something / to make a dream come true

Avoid # prevent (evitar, eludir // impedir a uno que haga algo)

Follow / Continue (seguir, entender // seguir, continuar)

Cook # Cooker ( cocinar, cocinera // cocina, electrodomJstico)

Econimic = económico, rentable (developmen, growth, policy)

Economical = económico (method/style/appliance), puede ir con more, less, very etc.

Classic = clásico, típico, memorable (study, text, play)

Classical = clásico, culto (theory/idea/method/music)

Work # job (inc.=trabajo, empleo // con.= trabajo, empleo, tarea)

Travel = viaje, viajar en general

Trip = viaje, excursión (incluye estancia)

Journey = viaje, trayecto (solo desplazamiento)

Like / as (para comparaciones, ejemplos // como, en calidad de)

Solve # Resolve (= solucionar/solution // decidir/resolution/decide)

They solved the problem.

They resolve to go to the party.

Used to // Usually (= hábitos en el pasado // hábitos en el presente)

They used to sleep longer in summer

They ussually sleep less in winter.

Another (sing,) uno más igual al anterior.

Please, give me a book ..... give me another (book).

Other (sing. o plural) otro más distinto al anterior.

Please, give me a book ..... give me other (# book).

Pass (movement, go by)

I passsed in front of you and you didn't look at me.

Spend (occupy time, spend time = pasar el tiempo)

(buy things, spend money = gastar dinero)

I spent my holidays in Italy.

I spent a lot of maney.

Waste (malgastar el dinero)

(perder el tiempo)

I wasted my money.

I wasted the time.

Be (in position, place = estar en un lugar)

He is in Vigo.

Stand (on your feet = estar de pié)

He is tired because of standing in the bus.

Stay (not to go away = quedarse)

He didn't go to the party, he stayed at home.

I'm sitting = estoy sentado.

I'm standing = estoy de pié.

I'm kneeling = estoy arrodillado.

I'm lying = estoy tumbado.

To lie lied lied = mentir

He used to lie.

To lie lay lain = yacer, tumbarse

She lies in peace with her husband.

When she was dead, she lay in peace.

To lay laid laid = poner horinzontal (la mesa), colgarse

When she starts to lay from the tree, she broke one leg.

To raise raised raised = (tr) levantar, alzar

The soldiers raised the flags.

To rise rose risen = (intr) levantarse, salir el sol

I like to see the sun rising.

To hang hanged hanged = colgar, ahorcar, ejecutar a uno

The thieves were hanged by the police.

To hang hung hung = colgar, estar colgado

Mary hung the clothes.

Hard (adj.): difficult The problem is hard.

(adv.): much I'm tired because I worked hard.

Hardly (adv.): scarcely = apenas I'm not tired because I hardly worked.

To live (verb) = vivir lives (3rd person) = vive life (sust. sing.) = vida lives (sust. plur.) = vidas live (adj.) = en vivo, en directo alive (adj.) = vivo no muerto (not dead) living (adj.) = que tiene vida interna, funcionamiento interno (inner working)

I live in Vigo. He lives in Vigo. My life is very happy. Their lives are very sad. The live concert was very good. He isn't dead, he is alive. it is a living essence.

Last = the final one (no hay m<s despuJs)

This has been my last exam in COU.

= the one before (el inmediatamente anterior)

Last night i went to the party.

Latest = the most recent (el m<s reciente): the latest one

I have just read Cela's latest novel (adn no muri\ y puede escribir m<s)

The last one = the last one up to now (el dltimo hasta el momento)

I have just read Shakespeare last novel (ya muri\, no puede escribir m<s)

Latter: the former ... the latter (el primero ... el dltimo de una enumeraci\n)

We went there with Peter and Mary; the former (Peter) invited us, the latter (Mary) paid for our dinner.

Late = after the time fixed (llegar despuJs de un tiempo)

You are always late.

Later = comparativo de "late"

You are always later than me.

SINÓNIMOS

look worried love hate break talk mend

watch preocupied like dislike crash speak repair

see anxiuous enjoy loathe crack chat fix

observe nervous keen on detest split converse

glance afraid adore can't stand destroy say

gaze frightened be fond of can't bear crush whisper

scan scared smash exclaim

fracture dialogue

gossip

critic

mad friend

crazy collegue

insane partner

fool classmate

nuts folk

pal

comrade

Distintos significados según la pronunciación

ROW /rou/ = remar/remo (paddle) The row (paddle) is broken.

/rou/ = fila de butacas: The last row in the cinema.

/rau/ = bronca, discusi\n: The row was very violent.

LEAD /li:d/ = dirigir, conducir: He led us towards that old castle.

/led/ = plomo: Lead is a metal.

LIVE /liv/ = (verb) vivir I live in Vigo.

/laiv/ = (adj.) en vivo, en directo The live concert was very good.

CONTENT /acento en "O"/ = contenido: The content of that film was very good.

/acento en "E"/ = contento: I'm content because I passed the exam.

OBJECT /acento en "O"/ = objecto: What is the object?

/acento en "E"/ = poner observación a algo: OBJECT TO: I object to the law.

DESERT /'dezet/ = desierto: I went to desert.

/di'ze:t/ = desertar, abandonar: The soldier deserts the battle.

DESSERT /di'ze:t/ = postre: What is there for dessert?

WIND /wind/ = viento: The wind blew the roof.

/waind/ = dar cuerda: The company didn't give wind to the problem

ATTEND = asistir: He attended to school.

= atender: He attended his ill brother.

ASSIST = ayudar

RIGHT = derecho:Go straight/along the King Street, turn to the right and you get the coach station

= de acuerdo I'll see you tomorrow. All right!

= derechos (rights): People have rights and duties.

WILL = (aux. futuro): I'll see you tomorrow.

= testamento: The will was written by Mary.

FOOD = comida comprada en supermercado: When we go to supermarket I buy food.

MEAL = comida que se sirve en la mesa: Mary makes the meal every day.

LUNCH = comida del mediodía He always have lunch at 2.00 a.m.

BREAKFAST = desayuno We always have breakfast at 7.30 a.m.

DINNER = cena We always have dinner at 6.00 a.m.

SUPPER = cena This is the last supper.

Prepositions

ON con días (si se menciona el día):

DAYS week On Monday.

date On February 24th, 1953

On weekends

On holidays On Christmas Day

On my birthday On Christmas Eve

IN con unidades de tiempo menor o mayor que un día:

centuries In the 20th century

years In 1999

seasons In Winter

months in January

Partes del día In the morning/afternoon/evening.

Edades cronológicas In the Middle Age.

AT con horas, clock, time // y excepciones de las anteriores:

At night/at noon/at dawn/at midday/at Christmas/at Easter

at midnight/at the moment/at lunchtime/at the age of. etc.

PROVERBS

Silence gives consent. From smoke into smother. March winds and April showers bring forth May flowers. The nearer the church, the farther from God. That is true which all men say. Bussiness is bussiness. Travellers tell strange tales. Birds of a feather flock together. Ill weeds grow apace. Every dog has his day. It is no use crying over spilt milk. Misfortunes never come singly. It never rains but it pour on the poor. Watched pot never boils. The longest day will have an end. What is bred in the narrow comes out in the bone. Like master like man. Health is better than wealth. God helps them that help themselves. The pan calls the kettle black. All is not gold that glitters. Where there is a will there is a way. Hunger is the best sauce. There is many a slip 'twist the cup and the lip. Look before you leap. There is no smoke without fire. More noise than work. The early bird catches the worm. No pains no gains. Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones. Love me, love my dog. One cannot make an omelet without breaking the eggs. Out of the frying pan into the fire. There are none so deaf as those that won't hear. Enough is as good as a feast. Cat after kind (or king). Deeds are fruits, words are but leaves.

Quién calla, otorga. De Herodes a Pilatos Marzo ventoso, Abril lluvioso sacan a Mayo florido y hermoso. Detrás de la Cruz está el diablo. Voz del pueblo, voz del cielo. Los negocios son los negocios. A luengas tierras, luengas mentiras. Cada oveja con su pareja. Mala hierba nunca muere. A cada puerco le llega su San Martín. A lo hecho, pecho. Las desgracias nunca vienen solas. A perro flaco, todo son pulgas. El que espera, desespera, y el que viene, nunca llega. No hay bien ni mal que cien años dure. La cabra siempre tira al monte. De tal palo, tal astilla. La salud vale más que el dinero. A dios rogando y con el mazo dando. Dijo la sarten al cazo: "Apartate, que me tiznas. No es oro todo lo que reluce. Querer es poder. A buen hambre no hay pan duro. Del plato a la boca se pierde la sopa. Antes que te cases, mira lo que haces. Cuando el rio suena, agua lleva. Mucho ruido y pocas nueces. Al que madruga Dios le ayuda. No hay atajo sin trabajo. El que vea la mota en el ojo ajeno, vea la viga en el propio. Quién bien quiere a Beltrán, bien quiere a su can. No se pescan las truchas a bragas enjutas Salir de las llamas y caer en las brasas. No hay peor sordo que el que no quiere oir. Un "NO" a tiempo vale mucho dinero. Dios los cría y ellos se juntan. Hechos son amores y no buenas razones.

PROVERBS (2)

It's the last straw that breaks the camel's back. The leopard cannot change its spots. Life is not al beer and skittles. Little pitchers have big ears. That is all my eye and Betty Martin. Big fleas have little fleas. A burnt child dreads the fire. Old birds are not caught with chaff. The child is father of the man The cobbler should stick to his last. Don't count your chickens before they are hatched. It's no use crying over spilt milk. Every dog has his day. The early bird catches the worm. Even a worm will turn. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. Take time by the forelock. There's many a slip between cup and lip. There's no smoke without fire. You can't make silk purse out of sow's bristles. There is no royal road to learning. Rome was not built in a day. When poverty comes in at the door, love flies out of the window. One swallow does not make summer. You can't make an omelette without breaking eggs. Don't look a gift horse in the mouth. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. As you make your bed, so you must lie on it. Birds of a feather flock together. Blood is thicker than water. You can't get blood out of a stone. Those who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. All is not gold that glitters. When Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war. Make hay while the sun shines. Where ignorance is bliss, `tis folly to be wise. It's an ill wind that blows nobody any good. In for a penny, in for a pound. The labourer id worthy of his hire. What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander. Every cloud has a silver lining. A miss is as good as a mile. A fault confessed is half redressed. Never say die. A rolling stone gathers no moss. A stitch in time saves nine. One man's meat is another man's poison. It never rains but it pours. Let not the sun go down upon thy wrath. He who pays the piper calls the tune.

Es la gota que colma el vaso. Genio y figura hasta la sepultura. No todo el monte es orégano. La vida no es coser y cantar. No es color de rosa. Los niños tienen la costumbre de escuchar. That's all nonsense. Todo lo grande o pequeño tiene sus problemas. Gato escaldado del agua huye. No es fácil engañar a un perro viejo. Más sabe el diablo por viejo que por diablo. Viendo al niño que quiere saber que va a ser de mayor. Zapatero a los zapatos. No hay que hacer castillos en el aire. No vale la pena lamentarse de algo que no tiene arreglo. A todo cerdo le llega su San Martín. A quién madruga Dios le ayuda. A la persona más tranquila se le acaba la paciencia en un momento determinado. Todo el mundo necesita descanso y diversión. Coger la oprtunidad por los pelos. Del plato a la boca se pierde la sopa. Cuando el río suene agua lleva. Aunque la mona se vista de seda, mona es y mona se queda. No se aprende sin esfuerzo. Zamora no se hace en una hora. Poverty mrried life is a great danger. Una golondrina no hace verano. El que wuiere pesca que moje el culo. A caballo regalado no le mires el diente. Más vale pájaro en mano que cien volando. Quién mala cama hace en ella yace. Dios los cria y ellos se juntan. Son muy fuertes los lazos de parentesco. No se puede sacar agua de las piedras. No le pidas peran al olmo. Nadie tira piedras contra su tejado. No es oro todo lo que reluce. A encounter between equals. Hacer el agosto. Aprovechar las circunsts. Es mejor ser ignorante, pues ser sabio crea problemas. No hay mal que por bien no venga. Preso por mil, preso por 1.500. A cada uno hay que darle lo que le corresp. Lo que es bueno para uno, es bueno para el otro. No hay mal que por bien no venga aunque 100 años dure. Lo mismo de librase por poco que por mucho. Si has cometido algo y lo ves compensado. Ánimo, mientras hay vida, hay esperanza. Si estás rodando continuamente, no llegas a ninguna parte. Más vale prevenir que curar, pero pronto. Lo que para uno es bueno, para el otro es veneno. Llueve sobre mojado, una desgracia nunca viene sola. No te vayas a la cama sin hacer las paces. El que paga tiene derecho a escoger.

- PROVERBS - (Cont.)

absence Absence makes the heart grow fonder.

actions Acttions speak louder than words.

apple An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

bed As you make your bed so must you lie on it.

beggars Beggars must not bechoosers.

bed Early to bed, early to rise

Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.

bird A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

An early bird catches the worm.

Birds of a feather flock together.

bitten Once bitten, twice shy.

blood Blood is thicker than water.

You cannot get blood out of a stone.

boys Boys will be boys.

brooms New brooms sweep clean.

cake You cannot eat your cake and have it.

cat A cat may look at a king.

When the cat's away the mice will play.

charity Charity begins at home.

chickens Don'count your chickens until they are hatched.

cloud Every cloud has a silver lining.

coat Cut your coat according to your cloth.

cooks Too many cooks spoil the broth.

courtesy Courtesy costs nothung.

dog Barking dogs seldom bite.

Every dog has his day.

Let sleeping dogs lie.

drowning A drowning man will clutch at a straw.

eggs Don't pull all your eggs in one basket.

enough Enough is as goos as a feast.

example Example is better than precept.

exchange Exchange is not robbery.

feathers Fine feathers make fine birds.

fire Where there's smoke there's fire.

first First come, first served.

fool A fool and his money are soon parted.

fortune Fortune knocks one at every man's door.

friend A friend in need is a friend indeed.

fruit Forbidden fruit tastes sweetest

frying-pan Out of the frying-pan into fire.

God God helps those who help themselves.

grasp Grasp all, lose all.

habit Habit is second nature.

hanged As well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb.

haste More haste, less spped.

hay Make hay while the sun shines.

heads Two heads are better than one.

heart Faint heart never won fair lady.

honesty Honesty is the best policy.

hunger Hunger is the best sauce.

hungry A hungry man is an angry man.

imitation Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.

lamb A pet lamb is a croos ram.

late Better late than never.

laugh Laugh and grow fat.

He laughs best who laughs last.

leak A small leak will sink a grat ship.

least Least said soonest mended.

listeners Listeners hear no good of themselves.

loaf Half a loaf is better than no bread.

look Look before you leap.

meat One man's meat is another man's poison.

miss A miss is as good as a mile.

necessity Necessity is the mother of invention.

news No news is good news.

pence Look after the pence and the pounds will look after themselves.

penny A penny saved is a penny gained.

In for a penny, in for a pound.

Penny wise, pound foolish.

EXERCISE.-

1.- Don't pull all your eggs in one basket. 2.- A rolling stone gathers no moss. 3.- One man's meat is another man's poison. 4.- Make hay while the sun shines. 5.- Empty vessels make most noise. 6.- Cut your coat according to your cloth. 7.- Birds of a feather flock together. 8.- Every cloud has a silver lining. 9.- Out of the frying-pan into the fire. 10.- Don't count your chickens before they are hatched

A.- People mix with those who have tates similar to their own. B.- Live within your means. C.- It is unwise to reckon your gains until you actually get them. D.- Even when things seem gloomy there is alwasy hope. E.- You should not risk all you have in a single speculation. F.- What suits one prson may not suit another. G.- In trying to get yourself out of trouble you often get into a worse one. H.- It is the people who have nothing in their heads who talk most. I.- One who often changes his job will never be rich. J.- Work while you can; don't put things off till tomorrow.

PHRASAL VERBS

Verbos con adverbio/preposición

To BREAK To LOOK

- away = irse, escaparse - at = mirar a

- down = averiarse, abatirse - after = cuidar de

desglosar, descomponer - down on = despreciar

- in = adiestrar, acondicionar - into = examinar

- into = violentar - for = bucar

- off = desgajar, dejar sin terminar - forward to = desear, tener ganas de

- out = estallar, hacer estallar - out = tener cuidado

- through = abrirse camino - over = ojear, echar un vistazo

- up = levantar la sesi\n - up = visitar, buscar en un diccionario, listin, etc.

To COME

- about = suceder, acaecer To CARRY

- across = atravesar, tropezarse con - on = continuar, seguir, comportarse

- off = desprenderse - out = sostener

- on = avanzar, adelantar - through = terminar

- out = salir, nacer, adelantarse

- over = suceder To BRING

- round = volver en sí, restablecerse - about = originar, provocar

- up = surgir - back = devolver

- round = persuadir

To GET - out = revelar, publicar

- away = huir - up = educar

- down = bajar, apearse, entristecerse

- off = bajarse de un vehiculo To GO

- on = subirse a un vehiculo - about = circular, emprender, intentar

progresar, llevarse bien con alguién - back = volver

- on with = progresar, llevarse bien con alguién - back on = retractarse

- out of = salir de - for = ir en busca de, favorecer, apoyar

- over = recuperarse, deshacerse de - in = entrar

- up = levantarse - in for = tomar parte en, favorecer

- into = meterse

To HOLD - off = dispararse, morirse

- up = parar, atracar - on = seguir, ocurrir

- on = esperar, aguantar - round = dar la vuelta

- out = aguantar, mantenerse firme - through = atravesar, pasar, sufrir

- over = aplazar, diferir - with = estar de acuerdo con, acompañar

- without = pasarse sin

To KEEP

- back = retener, suprimir, preservar To PUT

- down = sujetar - down = depositar, poner abajo

- on = seguir, proseguir - off = posponer, apagar, desconectar

- up = mantener, conservar, continuar - on = ponerse, conectar

- up = levantar, hospedar

- up with = soportar

To GIVE To RUN

- away = regalar, dar - away = huir

- back = devolver - away with = fugarse

- off = despedir, echar - down = difamar, hablar mal de

- on to = dar a - into = chocar, toparse con

- out = cansarse, rendirse - out of = quedarse sin existencias

- up = rendirse, dejar de (+-ING) - over = atropellar

To SEE To MAKE

- off = despedir, ir a despedir - for = contribuir

- about = averiguar - out = descubrir, descifrar, componer

- through = comprender, conocer - over = ceder

- to = atender - up = inventar, maquillarse, costear

To TAKE To TURN

- aback = dejar atónito, desconcertar - down = bajar el volumen, doblar

- after = parecerse a - into = convertirse en

- away = apartar, quitar - off = apagar, desconectar

- back = hacer volver, retroceder - on = encender, conectar

- down = escribir, tomar nota - up = aparecer

- in = incluir, admitir, engañar - out = apagar, resultar, suceder

- on = aceptar, comprender - over = entregar, invertir

- out = extraer, quitar - to = redundar en

- off = quitarse la ropa, despegar un avión

- over = tomar posesión de To WORK

- up = empezar, adoptar - out = calcular

THE GENDER

Kinds:

1.- Male

2.- Female

3.- Either male or female

4.- Neither male or female

These concepts reflected in grammatical gender of nouns

1) Masculine: man, bull

2) Femenine: woman, cow

3) Common words: student, friend

4) Neuter: tree, table

Sex in Modern English Grammar is expressed in various ways:

1) By the meaning of the noun itself:

COMMON MASCULINE FEMENINE

parent father mother

child boy girl

son daughter

spouse husband wife

youth lad lass

sovereign king queen

horse stallion mare

sheep ram ewe

deer (=ciervo) stag doe (hind)

swine (cerdo) boar sow

fowl cock hen

Some words have only masculine form:

MASCULINE FEMENINE

widower widow

bridegroom bride

bachelor spinster

nephew niece

lord lady

uncle aunt

master mistress

dog (hound) bitch (breach)

drake duck

brother sister

monk nun

gentleman lady

wizard (brujo) witch

gander (ganso) goose

cob (swan) cisne hen

2.- Masculine and Femenine are also indicated by addition of a suffix:

a) The most common femenine suffix is -ESS:

MASCULINE FEMENINE

abbot abbess

actor actress

baron baroness

duke duchess

emperor empress

god goddess

host hostess

lion lioness

major majoress

prince princess

negro negress

tiger tigress

waiter waitress

b) Other femenine suffixes are:

-TRIX -INE -INA -ETTE -I -EUSE -ENNE

MASCULINE FEMENINE

administrator administratix

victor victrix

prosecutor prosecutrix

executor executrix

hero heroina

Joseph Josephina

Gzar Gzarina

Baron Baronette

fiancé fianceé

protegé protegeé

masseur masseuse

comedian comedienne

3.- By using an extra word which clearly shows the gender, either as suffix or prefix:

MASCULINE FEMENINE

doctor lady doctor

male nurse nurse

boyfriend girlfriend

dog fox bitch fox (wixen)

Jackass Jenny ass

billy goat nanny goat (=niZera)

laundry man laundry woman

milkman milkmaid (milkwoman)

landlord landlady

tom cat tabby cat

cock pigeon hen pigeon

cock robin Jenny robin

4.- By use of pronouns = personal pronouns which refer to the nouns are the most common gender indicators in English. The 3rd. person singular pronouns have different forms for masculine, femenine or neuter:

The student hadn't got her book with her.

My friend said that he had sold his house.

Sometimes the 3rd. person singular pronouns are prefixed to words to distinguish gender:

MASCULINE FEMENINE

a he-donkey a she-dankey

a he-devil a she-devil

a he-bear a she-bear

5.- Sometimes the words MALE/FEMALE are prefixed to othe words:

MASCULINE FEMENINE

a male cat a female cat

a male rabbit a female rabbit

COMMON GENDER.-

In English there are many words for animate beings that do not indicate their gender. That is to say, these words indicate both masculine and femenine:

cousin friend person fool neighbiur

When making a sentence using one of these words, when the gender is not known you can use "he/she/they":

Your cousin wrote but he/she didn't say his/her name.

All substantives coming from verbs to denote agents are common gender:

reader teacher drunkward inhabitant copyist liar

Some substantives coming from other substantives also denote common gender:

criminal librarian musician prisoner

Because of social conditions many common gender words are used only of:

1) males: baker, tailor, merchant, soldeir, shoemaker, captain

2) females: nurse, milliner (sombrerera), cook, flirt (maja), dressmaker

Some words having masculine or femenine forms have become common gender by using one of the forms to denote the genus:

Masculine: man, dog, lion, jew

Femenine: duck, goose, hen, bee

UNNATURAL GENDER.-

Names of people.- They become neuter when the idea of personality is little developed:

baby. She was a baby. It is a girl.

When we wish to speak scornfully of a person we use the pronoun "that" or "it":

Would you like to be married to that? Fancy seeing it every day.

Name of animals.- domestic and large beasts are normally personified according to their sex:

I have a dog. His name is Sam.

With smaller animals and birds, the neuter is generally used, but some are referred to as masculine and some as femenine:

Masculine: cuckoo, rabbit, mouse.

Femenine: dove, sparrow, lark, thrush, mole, bee, hare.

Name of things.- countries and cities are generally neuter, but in literary English they can be referred to as femenine:

England ruled the seas thanks to its/her navy.

Sexless things.- generally referred to as femenine: moon, nature, sea, ships, engines, aircraft, motor-cars ... and abstract ideas.

Sexless things.- referred to as masculine: sun, rivers, mountains, war, death etc.

GENDER IN PRONOUNS.-

First and second person pronouns do not denote gender because it is clear from context:

I me my mine you your yours

For the third person there are three forms: Masculine, femenine and neuter. Sometimes this causes difficulties in expression: it is necessary to use constructions like "he/she/they":

Nobody knows how to do that, do they?

The reader's heart, if he or she has a heart ...

Some pronouns are two-sex and some no-sex:

two-sex no-sex

Interrogative Who? what?

Relative Who which

Indefinite somebody something

anybody anything

everybody everything

VERBS USED WITH PREPOSITIONS

1.- The following verbs are used without a preposition in English, but with preposition in Spanish:

to abuse	Never abuse friendship	abusar de
to approach	He approached the house	acercarse a
to attend	I attended the meeting	asistir a
to lack	The poor man lacked means	carecer de
to mock	They mocked me	burlarse de
to marry	John married Mary	casarse con
to stop	He stopped working	dejar de
to cease	I ceased working	cesar de
to finish	He finished working	terminar de
to begin	He began working	empezar a
to distrust	I distrust Michael	desconfiar de
to enjoy	He enjoys good health	disfrutar de
to doubt	I doubt his word	dudar de
to enter	They entered the shop	entrar en
to smoke	He smokes a pipe	fumar en
to play	They played football	jugar a
to ride	I like riding horses	montar a
to sound	This sounds hollow	sonar a

2.- The following verbs are used with a preposition in English, but without a preposition in Spanish:

to ask for	He asked for a book	pedir
to listen to	They listened to the radio	escuchar
to hope for	We hoped for a fine day	esperar
to look at	She looked at the picture	mirar
to look for	I was looking for my watch	buscar
to operate on	They operated on Mary	operar
to pay for	I will pay for the ticket	pagar
to point at	He pointed at me	señalar
to search for	He searched for his papers	buscar
to wait for	I was waiting for the bus	esperar
to rob of	They robbed me of my watch	robar
to steal from	They stole my watch from me	robar
to remind of	That reminds me of England	recordar

3.- The following verbs are used with a preposition in English, but a different preposition in Spanish:

to buy from	I bought a book brom the bookseller	Comprar a
to congratulate on	I congratulated him on his success	felicitar por
to consist of	All consisted of doing it	Consistir en
to demand of	They demanded too much of John	exigir a
to depend on	It depends of the circumstances	Depender de
to fall into	He fell into the river	caerse en
to live on	He lives on charity	vivir de
to marvel at	He marvelled at the news	Maravillarse de
to play a trick on	They played a trick on John	gastar una broma a
to think of	He thought of his children	pensar en
to translate into	Translate this into English	traducir al
to dream of	I dreamt of you last night	soñar con
to smell of	This smells of soap	oler a
to taste of	This tastes of fish	saber a

VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE PREPOSITIONS: OF/FROM/IN/ON/TO/AT/FOR and WITH

OF: accuse, approve, assure, beware, boast (or ABOUT), complain (or ABOUT), consist, convince (or ABOUT), cure, despair, dream (or ABOUT), expect (or FROM), hear (or FROM), be/get rid, smell, suspect, taste, think (or ABOUT), tire(d), warn (or AGAINST)

FROM: borrow, defend (or AGAINST), demand (or OF), differ, dismiss, draw, emerge, escape, excuse (or FOR), hinder, prevent, prohibit, protect (or AGAINST), receive, separate, suffer

IN: believe, delight, employ(ed), encourage, angage(d), experience(d), fail, help (or WITH), include, indulge, instruct, interest(ed), invest, share, involve(d), persist.

ON: act, base(d), call, comment, concentrate, congratulate, consult (or ABOUT), count, decide, depend, economize, embark, experiment, insist, live, rely, lean (or AGAINST), operate, perform (or IN), write (or ABOUT), pride (oneself), vote (ON a motion; FOR someone).

TO: accustom(ed), amount, appeal, apply (or FOR), attach(ed), attend, belong, challenge, compare (or WITH), condemn(ed), confess, consent, convert, entittle(d), listen, mention, object, occur, prefer, react (or AGAINST), respond, reply, see, submit, surrender, turn, yield.

AT: amuse(d) (or BY), arrive (or IN), astonish(ed) (or BY), exclaim, glance, guess, knock, look, point (or TO), shock(ed) (or BY), stare, work (or ON), surprise(d) (or BY), wonder (or ABOUT).

FOR: account, ask (or OF), act (or ON), apologize, blame, beg, call, charge, exchange, hope, look, mistake, mourn, pay, prepare, provide, search, thank, vote (or ON), wait (or ON).

WITH: agree, begin, communicate, compare (or TO), complete (or AGAINST), comply, confuse, contrast (or TO), cope, correspond, disgust(ed), finish, help (or IN), interfere (or IN), mix, occupy(ied), part, please(d), quarrel (or ABOUT), reason, satisfy(ied) (or BY), threaten(d).

WORDS FOLLOWED BY FOR/WITH/OF/TO/AT/FROM/IN/ON and ABOUT

FOR: eager, enough, famous, fit, gateful (or TO), qualified (or IN), sorry, ready (or TO), responsible, sufficient, thankful (or TO), valid.

WITH: angry (WITH someone; AT something), busy (or AT), consistent, content, familiar (or TO), identical, patient, popular.

OF: afraid, ahead, aware, capable, careful (or WITH), certain, conscious, envious, fond, guilty, ignorant, independent, jealous, kind (or TO), north/south/east/west, short, shy, sure, worthy.

TO: close, contrary, cruel, dear, equal, faithful, fatal, harmful, inferior, indifferent, liable, new, obedient, obvious, polite, previous, rude, similar, sensitive, useful.

AT: bad, clever, efficient, expert (or IN), good, indignant, quick, slow, sad (or ABOUT), skilful (or IN).

FROM: away, different, far, safe.

IN: deficient, fortunate, honest, weak.

ON: dependent, intent, keen.

ABOUT: curious, doubtful (or OF), enthusiastic, relunctant (or TO), uneasy, right (or IN).

This section consists of a list of verbs, adjectives and particles with the particular preposition that usually follow them. The vebs list has been compiled in the form of sentence examples. The adjective and particle lists give a phrase only:

They abandoned their fellow soldiers TO the enemy (left) They were alsolved FROM blame for the mistake He was too absorved IN his work to hear the bell She had to answer/account TO her father for her behaviour They were accused OF stealing They were acquitted OF blame for the mistake libertar absolver He was accustomed TO a large breakfast She acquainted him WITH the situation (informar a uno sobre) Money problems only added TO their unhappiness He could not adjust TO thr new conditions The question admits OF several answers He admitted TO being the thief (confesarse culpable de) They admitted him TO their plans They agreed ON/ABOUT the question She agreed TO his suggestion He agrred WITH his father on the plan He aimed the gun AT the target He apologized TO her for his behaviour (disculparse con) Delighted, she approved OF his behaviour He armed himself AGAINST possible danger She asked at the hotel FOR her friend (ask to see) She asked at the hospital ABOUT her friend (ask how s/o is) She asked a favour OF her (ask s/o to do domething) They would not associate WITH his friends Wise investments assured him OF large income She was very attached TO her aunt (fond of) He attached his caravan TO his car She asked him to bear WITH her temper (tolerate) He began BY playing a concerto He began WITH a concerto They believed strongly IN internationalism That book belongs TO me He boasted OF his success at billiards She borrowed a pond FROM his sister Thieves broke INTO the bank He broke himself OF smoking She broke WITH him after a row He brushed the dust FROM/OFF his coat She burst INTO tears at the news The smouldering rags burst INTO flames She did not care ABOUT/FOR reading her uncle He changed his scooter FOR a car He changed FROM elementary to an intermediate class She changed INTO something warmer (put on - warmer clothes) How much were you charge FOR dinner? He was charged WITH careless driving They commented ON his behaviour (speak about) He compared her WITH her friend He compared her TO a flower They competed WITH one another FOR the job She complained TO him ABOUT his friend They concealed the news FROM him (keep from) We concentrated ON doing one job at at time She concluded FROM his remark that he was angry (deduce) He confused her WITH her friend She was confused BY his directions I congratulated him ON winning Her father consented TO her engagement Civilisation consists IN having a constructed attitude Porridge consists OF oatmeal and water It downed ON them that they had been tricked (realise) A greengrocer deals IN vegetables We deal WITH the greengrocer at the corner She delighted IN listening to music He depends ON his father for allowance They deprived the prisoner OF his property and money The word isosceles derived FROM the Greek She asked him not to refer TO the matter again He reflected ON her attitude character (think about) He released her FOM her promise She relied ON her father for everything She soon replied TO their letter He reprimanded them FOR arriving late Illness resulted FROM lack of food The game resulted IN a draw He ruled ON the case very carefully (give judgement) He ruled OVER a large kingdom This serviette ring serves AS an egg-cup He served the summons ON the debtor She served WITH the W.R.N.S. during the war His creditors settled FOR anything they could get He retired and settled IN a seaside town He settled WITH his creditors She shared IN her husband's worries She shared the money WITH him They sheltered FROM the storm, by standing in a doorway The markman shot AT the clay pigeon He shouted AT the man who annoyed him (speak badly) He shouted ACROSS the valley TO his friend (call to) She spoke OF the man as an old friend She spoke ABOUT/OF a matter I thought was secret He spoke TO his friend The general spoke WITH the soldiers

He died FOR his beliefs He died FROM/OF starvation My ideas differ FROM yours We differ IN our ideas We differ ON this idea We differ WITH each other ON this She directed her remarks AT her father She directed him TO the station He disagreed WITH her ON/OVER the matter The dustman disposed OF five tons of rubbish yesterday They dreamt OF winning a fortune Wide-eyed, they drank IN the beauty of the place They drank TO better days The evening ended IN confusion (result) The evening ended WITH a dance (conclude) We must enrol FOR the exam before next week He exchanged his house FOR a bigger one They excluded him FROM the club (deny entry to) They excused him FOR his absence (for not bring there) They excused him FROM attending (allow not to be there) She failed IN her exam She failed IN trying to pass the exam He fell INTO the habit of not attending They feed mostly ON vegetables She fed him WITH a spoon She told him not to fuss OVER her He was gladdened BY her good news In passing they glanced AT him He asked them to glance THROUGH the notebook She grieved AT the bad news She grieved FOR the missing child He grieved OVER the past She helped him IN/OVER this matter She helped him WITH the English They hid FROM her in the celler They hinted AT the idea that she was wealthy They improved ON the old engine with the new one He inculcated knowledge UPON her She insisted ON coming with us He was inspired WITH courage by her example He was inspired BY her He instilled knowledge INTO her She joined IN the singing She joined WITH us in singing the song They judged her BY/ON her performance Unkindly they laughed AT her In support they laughed WITH her He was leaning AGAINST the wall smoking He leaned ON his brother for support Don't meddle IN/WITH other people's affairs They objected TO her bahaviour (dislike, complain) The doctor operated ON him for a cyst Although panniless she would not part WITH her jewellery They were prohibited FROM buying arms He played FOR England at Lord's It is rude to point AT someone You may however point TO someone or something (indicate) They presented him WITH a clock when he retired They presented a clock TO him when he retired They prevented him FROM buying a house He provided FOR her in his will He provided her WITH a car They quarrelled ABOUT/OVER money They quarrelled WITH their neighbours She reckoned ON inheriting a few thousand when he died She had to reckon WITH his mother (deal with, take into account) He soon recover FROM flu She succeeded IN passing the exam She succeeded TO her father's property He supplied her WITH a car He supplied a car TO the hotel She suspected him OF stealing They swore AT the man for his bad driving He swore ON the Bible he was telling the truth She sympathised WITH him in his loss He threatened them WITH the police He threw the book AT them in anger He threw the coin TO a poor man She was treated FOR the complaint by a specialist He treated her TO a drink She translated an English novel INTO Finnish He asked the operator not to trouble herself ABOUT looking up the number We trust IN him (believe in) We trust TO his honesty (believe in) We would trust him WITH everything we have These figures vary FROM the official ones (differ) The tides vary WITH the moon (alter) She vouched FOR her friend's honesty They watched hopefully FOR the sign that he was getting better The mother watched OVER her child(take care of, guard ) He wrote to his friend ABOUT the exhibition They yielded TO the enemy's demands

In this list the short forms s/o, s/th have been used for someone and something:

abridgement OF a book absent FROM class agreeable TO a suggestion alive TO a possibility alive WITH ideas/insects aloof FROM a situation angry WITH someone angry AT her behaviour antipathetic TO an idea anxious ABOUT/FOR someone apparent FROM a remark apparent IN her behaviour apparent TO everyone appreciative OF someone apprehensive FOR s/o's safety apprehensive OF someone apt + infinitive with TO ashamed OF someone attentive TO someone auxiliary TO something averse TO an idea avoidance OF s/o or s/th aware OF something awkward AT doing something awkward IN a situation basis FOR agreement basis IN fact blind TO something bound FOR somewhere capable OF something cautious OF acting celebrated FOR a performance characteristic OF someone comparable TO something compatible WITH something conditional (UP) ON something conductive TO something consistent WITH something deaf TO an appeal deficient IN something grateful TO someone BY something hatred OF someone hostile TO s/o or s/th identical WITH something impassive TO something impatient AT an obatacle impat ient OF success impatient WITH someone (im)polite TO someone inappropiate FOR someone inappropiate TO something incapable OF something indebted TO someone FOR something independent IN attitude independent OF someone indifferent TO someone/something injurious TO health innocent OF something inseparable FROM someone/something (ir)relevant TO something jealous OF someone/something kind Of you to call kind TO friends liable FOR something TO someone liable TO do something loyal TO someone mad AT someone mad WITH pain noted FOR something obidient TO someone/something oblivious OF something the (an) opportunity OF an oportunity TO orthodox IN something parallel TO/WITH something particular ABOUT something peculiar TO somewhere pleased BY something pleased WITH someone/something popular WITH someone presumptuous OF him proud OF someone/something

destructive OF an abstract idea destructive TO something concrete detrimental TO something devoid OF a quality different FROM s/o or s/th disappointed BY soemthing disappointed WITH someone disgusted AT/WITH s/o or s/th disgusted BY something displeased AT something displeased WITH someone eager FOR something eligible FOR something employed AT a place employed BY someone employed IN a job envious OF s/o or s/th equivalent IN (literally) What is the equivalent TO (figuratively) What is dog equivalent TO in Latin? evident FROM a statement exception TO a rule exclusive OF tax except FROM tax faithful TO someone/something familiar TO someone (known to someone) familiar WITH someone (onclose terms with) familiar WITH something famous FOR something favorable FOR something favorable TO someone filled WITH something full OF something equivalent OF dog in Latin? good AT games good FOR you (health) good OF you to do s/th (kind) good TO a needy (charity) good WITH children (understanding) good WITH food (accompany) qualified BY experience FOR a job quick AT a subject quick IN movement reckless OF danger regardless OF consequences related BY marriage related IN other ways related TO each other responsible TO someone FOR something revenge ON someone FOR something rich IN minerals safe FROM something (an enemy) safe WITH someone schooled IN something sensible OF something (aware, grateful for) sensitive TO unkindness sick OF doing something sick WITH an illness solicitious OF something sufficient FOR one's needs suitable FOR a purpose suitable TO one's needs or position surprised AT/BY something surprised INTO doing something suspicious OF someone sympathetic TOWARDS someone terrified BY someone/something thoughtful FOR/OF people thoughtless OF people tolerant IN a matter unequal IN skill unequal TO demands unjust TO someone unmindful OF something valued IN ,50 valued FOR her good qualities vexed AT something vexed WITH someone ABOUT/FOR something void OF something weak AT languages weak IN vitamins

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING WITH SUITABLE PREPOSITIONS:

1. She admitted him ______ her plans.

2. Burglars broke ______ their flat.

3. The surgeon operated ______ him for appendicitis.

4. He presented the fireman ______ a medal.

NOMBRES COMPUESTOS

B¡Error! Marcador no definido. BLACK-OUT = mareo, amnesia temporal BLAST-OFF = lanzamiento BREAKDOWN = interrupción, fracaso avería, crisis BREAK-OUT = evasión, fuga BREAK-THROUGH = descubrimiento BREAK-UP = separación BUILD-UP = concentración de fuerzas BY-PASS = carretera de circunvalación C CALL-UP = reclutamiento CARRY-ON = embrollo, lío CARRYINGS-ON = relaciones amorosas ilicitas CAVE-IN = socavón, derrumbamiento CHANGE-OVER = cambio CHECK-UP = chequeo CLEAN-OUT = limpieza a fondo CLOSE-UP = primer plano COMEBACK = rehabilitación, acciones BONDS = obligaciones COMEDOWN = humillación, revés, bajón CUTBACK = corte D DOWN-FALL = caida, ruina DOWNPOUR = chaparrón, aguacero D. Day = día, momento crítico DRAWBACKS=inconveniente, desventajas DRESSING-DOWN=reprimenda, rapapolvo DROPPING-OFF = bajada en Nº de ..... DROPPING-OUT = darse de baja, retirarse F FALL-OUT = polvillo radioactivo FLARE-UP =arranque de cólera,riña, estalli- do súbito, manisfestación, ruptura de hostilidades FLASH-BACK = escena retrospectiva FRAME-UP = conspiración G GET-AWAY = escapada GET-UP = atavíos GO-AHEAD = luz verde, permiso o señal para construir GO-BETWEEN = intermediario GOINGS-ON = actividades/conducta sospechosas S SEND-OFF = despedida (por todo lo alto) SETBACK = revés, contratiempo SET-TO = bronca, pelea (coloquial) SET-UP = situación, tinglado SHAKE-UP = reorganización, conmoción SHOWDOWN = confrontación, conflicto SPLASHDOWN = amerizaje STAND-BY = persona de toda confianza, recurso seguro STAND-IN = suplente (CINE = doble) SHOW-OFF = presumido, ostentoso (pers.) T TAKEOVER = toma de posesión, entrada en funciones, ABSORCION TAKING-TO = rapapolvos TIE-UP = enlace, paralización (por huelga) embotellamiento (tráfico) TIP-OFF=advertencia clandestina, SOPLO aviso TURN-OUT=concurrencia, Nº de asistentes entrada, pdblico TURN-OVER=volumen de negocios,ventas rotación de existencias, Nº de mercancias

H HANG-OVER = resaca (bebida/guerra) HANGERS-ON = parásitos, pegotes HIDE-OUT = escondrijo, guarida HOLD-UP = retraso, demora, ATRACO I INTAKE = admisión, entrada (alumnos) L LAY-BACK = trampa habitual LAY-OFF = paro involuntario LAY-OUT = plan, trazado, distribución LET-DOWN = decepción, chasco LEFT-OVERS = sobras (comida etc.) LET-UP = calma, respiro, tregua, RELAX LOOKER-ON = espectador, mirón/mirona LOOK-OUT = vigilancia, puesto de observación LOOK-OVER = echar un vistazo LOW-DOWN = informes confidenciales M MIX-UP = confusión, lRo O OFF-SHOOT = vástago (Bot), ramal sucursal subsidiaria OFF-CHANCE = posibilidad remota OUT-BREAK = brote, estallido, epidemia OUT-BURST = explosión OUTCOME = resultado OUT-CRY =grito, protesta pública (ruidosa) OUTLAY = desembolso, inversión OUT-LET = punto de venta, salida OUTLOOK = perspectiva, punto de vista, ACTITUD OUTPUT = producción ONSET = comienzo, ataque, arremetida P PAY-OFF = momento decisivo, COLMO coyuntura crítica R ROUND-UP = redada, rodeo, investigación a gran escala RUNNER-UP = subcampeón/subcampeona U UPBRINGING = educación UPKEEP = mantenimiento, conservaci\n UPSHOT = resultado, consecuencia UPSTART = arribista, insolente, presumido UP-SURGE = acceso, aumento grande UPTAKE = entendimiento, aprensión UPTURN = mejora, aumento W WALK-OUT = salida, huelga, retirada WASH-OUT = fracaso total, calamidad WRITE-OFF = perdida total, depreciación (coche inservible) WRITE-UP = reportaje/crónica muy Elogiosa

Uses of main verbs DO and MAKE

The general rule is that DO means "perform an action", while MAKE has a much more concrete meaning of "build", "prepare" etc. In addition to this, there are, of course, many idiomatic expressions where this basic rule is not always observed; the most common of these expressions are:

DO = PERFORM AN ACTION MAKE = CREATE

do something make a chair

do nothing make a noise

do some work make friends

do an exercise make money

do an examination make profits

do good make the beds

do wrong make war

do a task make peace

do well make a fuss

do badly make a face

do a favour make a trip

do justice make room of

do business make trouble

do one's duty make one's heir

do one's hair make a scene

VERBOS IRREGULARES INGLESES

Infinitive	Pasado	Participio	Significado:
to be	was/were	been	ser o estar
to bear	bore	borne/born	soportar, sufrir
to beat	beat	beaten	golpear, vencer
to become	became	become	hacerse
to begin	began	begun	empezar
to bend	bent	bent	doblar, torcer
to bite	bit	bitten	morder
to bleed	bled	bled	sangrar
to blow	blew	blown	soplar
to break	broke	broken	romper
to bring	brought	brought	traer
to build	built	built	construir, edificar
to burn	burnt	burnt	quemar
to burst	burst	burst	estallar, reventar
to buy	bought	bought	comprar
to catch	caught	caught	coger, atrapar
to choose	chose	chosen	escoger, elegir
to come	came	come	venir
to cost	cost	cost	costar
to cut	cut	cut	cortar
to dig	dug	dug	cavar
to do	did	done	hacer
to draw	drew	drawn	dibujar, tirar de
to dream	dreamt	dreamt	soñar
to drink	drank	drunk	beber
to drive	drove	driven	conducir
to eat	ate	eaten	comer
to fall	fell	fallen	caer, caerse
to feed	fed	fed	alimentar, dar de comer
to feel	felt	felt	sentir, palpar
to fight	fought	fought	luchar
to find	found	found	encontrar
to fly	flew	flown	volar
to forbid	forbade	forbidden	prohibir
to forgive	forgave	forgiven	perdonar
to forget	forgot	forgotten	olvidar
to freeze	froze	frozen	helar, congelar
to get	got	got	conseguir, obtener
to give	gave	given	dar
to go	went	gone	ir
to grow	grew	grown	crecer, cultivar
to hang	hung	hung	colgar
to have	had	had	haber, tener
to hear	heard	heard	oir
to hide	hid	hidden	esconder
to hit	hit	hit	pegar, golpear
to hold	held	held	sostener, agarrar
to hurt	hurt	hurt	herir
to kneel	knelt	knelt	arrodillarse
to know	knew	known	saber, conocer
to lay	laid	laid	poner horizontal
to learn	learnt	learnt	aprender
to leave	left	left	abandonar, salir, marchar
to lend	lent	lent	prestar
to let	let	let	permitir, dejar, alquilar
to lie	lay	lain	yacer, tumbarse
to light	lit	lit	encender
to lose	lost	lost	perder
to make	made	made	hacer
to mean	meant	meant	significar, querer decir
to meet	met	met	encont rarse

Infinitive	Pasado	Participio	Significado:
to pay	paid	paid	pagar
to put	put	put	poner
to read	read	read	leer
to ride	rode	ridden	cabalgar, montar
to show	showed	shown	mostrar, enseñar
to shut	shut	shut	cerrar
to sing	sang	sung	cantar
to sit	sit	sit	sentarse
to ring	rang	rung	sonar, timbrar
to rise	rose	risen	levantarse, salir sol
to run	ran	run	correr
to say	said	said	decir
to see	saw	seen	ver
to seek	sought	sought	buscar
to sell	sold	sold	vender
to send	sent	sent	enviar
to set	set	set	establecer
to shake	shook	shaken	agitar
to shine	shone	shone	brillar
to shoot	shot	shot	disparar
to sleep	slept	slept	dormir
to slide	slid	slid	deslizarse
to smell	smelt	smelt	oler
to speak	spoke	spoken	hablar
to spell(ed)	spelt	spelt	deletrear
to spend	spent	spent	gastar, pasar el tiempo
to spin	spun/span	spun	hacer girar
to spit	spat	spat	escupir
to spoil(led)	spoilt	spoilt	desarramar, estropear
to stand	stood	stood	estar de pié
to steal	stole	stolen	robar
to stink	stank/stunk	stunk	oler mal
to strike	struck	struck	golpear, pegar
to swear	swore	sworn	blasfemar
to sweep	swept	swept	barrer
to swell	swelled	swollen	hinchar
to swim	swam	swum	nadar
to swing	swang	swung	mecer, balancear
to take	took	taken	tomar, llevar
to teach	taught	taught	enseñar
to tear	tore	torn	rasgar
to tell	told	told	decir, contar, ralatar
to think	thought	thought	pensar, creer
to throw	threw	thrown	arrojar, tirar
to tread	trod	trodden	pisar
to undergo	underwent	undergone	sufrir
to understand	understood	understood	entender, comprender
to undertake	undertook	undertaken	emprender
to wake	woke	woken	despertar
to wear	wore	worn	llevar puesto, usar
to win	won	won	ganar
to wind	wound	wound	dar cuerda
to wring	wrung	wrung	retorcer
to write	wrote	written	escribir

TOP FORTY OF THE MOST FATAL MISTAKES

1,. DIvide your writings into paragraphs.-

2.- WORD ORDER:

- S.V.O. - Remember nothing can come between the verb and its object.

- Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time, place and manner usually come at the end of the sentence.

- Adverbs of frequency and degree are usually placed before the main verb.

- Adjectives come before the noun (Multiple Premodification)

3.- VERBS:

- If you are telloing a story in the PAST, use the PAST.

- If the verb is irregular, you should know its forms too.

- Don't forget the -s or -es of the third singular person.

- With some verbs you have to use a certain pattern, be careful with:

* Modal verbs (all of them take an infinitive withouit TO, except OUGHT TO and USED TO).

* Make somebody do something.

* Want somebody to do something.

* Explain something to somebody.

* Be/Get used to doing something.

* Used to do something (expresses a habit in the past only, to refer to a habit in the present use the Present Simple with an adverb of frequency).

* Suggest doing something (includes the speaker).

* Suggest that somebody should do something.

* Allow somebody to do soemthing.

* Look forward to doing something.

* Enjoy something/Enjoy doing something/Enjoy oneself.

* Like or Dislike doing something.

* I wish with the Simple Past expresses a wish regarding the PRESENT.

* I wish with the Past Perfect expresses a wish regarding the PAST.

4.- DETERMINERS and PRONOUNS:

- A/ An.

- Revise the use of definite and indefinite articles.

- Be careful with This and These

- Another/Other

- Neither/None

5.- PREPOSITIONS:

- Think OF/ABOUT.

- At that moment.

- Arrive AT/IN.

- UNTIL with expressions of TIME // AS FAR AS with expressions of PLACE.

- Based ON

- Get married TO somebody/Marry somebody (never WITH).

- Fall OFF a bike, a horse, a table, etc.

- ON with dates or days of the week.

- IN with months, seasons (except AT Christmas/Easter), years, centuries, parts of the day (except AT night/midday).

- ON television/Channel 2, etc.

- BY goes with the agent of the passive voice.

- ON the coast.

- Depend ON.

- Consist OF

- Interested IN

- If a verb is followed by a PREPOSITION, the GERUND (-ing form) must be used.

6.- NOUNS:

- Be careful with irregular plurals (men, women, children, feet ...).

- Use a plural verb with a plural noun (people, police ...).

- Remember every verb needs a subject but don't double IT.

- The Saxon Genitive: use it only for people, be careful with the order of elements, the articles and plural possessors.

7.- GRAMMAR IN GENERAL:

- To express purpose use the infinitive with TO.

- The construction FOR + GERUND is used when you are describing an object.

- To express purpose it is also possible to use IN ORDER TO/SO AS or SO THAT, the problem is that the latter is only used when there are two different subjects:

(e.g. I study English IN ORDER TO get a better job, but I've opened the window SO THAT we can breathe some fresh air).

- Relative Clauses.

* Use the appropiate relative in each case.

* If the relative is the subject of the clause do not use another one.

* Punctuation is crucial for the meaning. The distinction between Defining and Non-defining should be clear.

* Double negatives.

8.- SPELLING:

- Nationality words with CAPITALS.

- Days of the weeks with CAPITALS.

- Double consonats.

9.- VOCABULARY:

- BORING / BORED, etc. (adj=aburrido=es aburrido/adj=aburrido=estar aburrido)

- ACTUALLY (adv=realmente, en realidad)

- STORY / HISTORY (cuento, historieta/historia (asignatura))

- END / ENDING (fin/final)

- AFTER / AFTERWARDS (prep,conj./adv.)

- KNOW / MEET (saber, conocer/encontrarse con, toparse con)

- EXIT / SUCCESS

- WORK / JOB

- TO REALISE SOMETHING / TO MAKE A DREAM COME TRUE

- TRAVEL / TRIP / JOURNEY

- NOTICE / NEWS

- ON THE ONE HAND / ON THE OTHER HAND

- PROGRAM / PROGRAMME

- ATTEND / ASSIST

- CAREER / UNIVERSITY COURSE

- LIKE / AS

- AVOID / PREVENT

- FOLLOW / CONTINUE

- LAST / LATEST

- COOK / COOKER

- ECONOMIC / ECONOMICAL

- CLASSIC / CLASSICAL

- PASS / SPEND

These pairs of words frequently occur together in English, joined by and. Say which is the order in which they are generally used. Then put them into sentences that will illustrate their meanings and uses:

example: seek Answer: hide and seek

hide Sentence: The children are playing hide and seek in the garden.

chips dry shoulders prim &

fish & high & head & proper

pros & tear buried cock &

cons wear & dead & bull

weather spick & steak & dried

wind & span kidney cut &

cat & song & blood eggs

dog dance flesh & ham &

fast far & bricks & by &

hard & wide mortar large

good & ladies & sick & figures

chattels gentlemen tired facts &

women rules & high-water needles

men & regulations hell & pins &

women & collar & to & waifs &

children tie fro strays

ink tooth & simple sticks &

pen & nail pure & stones

drakes bits & thunder odds &

ducks & pieces blood & ends

forks sound

knives & safe &

GRAMÁTICA ESPAÑOLA

1.- El Artículo:

Es el que va colocado delante del nombre para determinar o señalar su género y su número.

	Singular: el, la, lo (masculino, femenino, neutro)
DETERMINADO
	Plural: los, las (masculino y femenino)

	Singular: un, una (masculino y femenino)
INDETERMINADO
	Plural: unos, unas (masculino y femenino)

ARTÍCULOS CONTRACTOS: al (a + el); del (de + el)

• El artículo concuerda con el nombre en género y número.

2.- El Adjetivo

Es la parte de la oración que sirve para expresar ciertas cualidades del sustantivo o para limitar su sugnificación.

Ej.: Mesa grande (cualidad)

Esta mesa (se trata de una mesa en concreto)

Por tanto el adjetivo se divide en determinativo y calificativo.

DETERMINATIVO

Son los que limitan la significación del sustantivo con indicación de lugar, posesión, número ... etc.

Por tanto se dividen en: Demostrativos, Posesivos, Numerales e Indefinidos

Demostrativos: Acompañan al nombre e indican su proximidad o lejanía con

relación al que habla.

	Masculino	Femenino
Singular	1ª persona: este 2ª persona: ese 3ª persona: aquel	esta esa aquella
Plural	1ª persona: estos 2ª persona: esos 3ª persona: aquellos	estas esas aquellas

Posesivos: Acompañan al nombre e indican que lo expresado por el sustantivo

pertenece a algun dueño.

		Masculino		Femenino
		singular	plural	singular	plural
Singular	1ª persona: 2ª persona: 3ª persona:	mi tu su	mis tus sus	mi tu su	mis tus sus
Plural	1ª persona: 2ª persona: 3ª persona:	nuestro vuestro su	nuestros vuestros sus	nuestra vuestra su	nuestras vuestras sus

Numerales: Son los que limitan la extensión del sustantivo indicando número u orden.

Ej.: veinte marcas de vehículos; segunda vez ... etc.

CLASES:

Cardinales: que expresan número: uno, dos, tres ... mil etc.

Ordinales: que indican el lugar que un objeto ocupa en una serie ordenada de objetos.

Ej.: las primeras industrias regionales.

Indefinidos: Son aquellos que completan la significación del sustantivo, pero de

un modo vago y general.

Ej.: algunos empleados; ciertas piezas .... etc.

CLASES:

Indefinidos cuantitativos	Indefinidos distributivos
Mucho bastante otro alguno Poco tanto tal unos Todo cuanto cualquiera ambos Varios demasiado cierto entrambos	cada sendos unos ... otros

CALIFICATIVOS

Son los que dicen como son las personas, animales o las cosas.

Ej.: carretero serio; mulas tordas; ruedas verdes

El género y número del adjetivo siempre es el mismo que el de los sustantivos.

Ej.: caballo delantero; mulas tordas.

Según el género los adjetivos pueden ser de dos terminaciones: buen-o/-a; o de una terminación: verd-e, az-ul, valient-e.

Para la formación del femenino o del plural, el adjetivo sigue generalmente las mismas reglas que el sustantivo.

Apócope del adjetivo: Hay adjetivos calificativos que suprimen algunos de sus sonidos finales cuando van delante del sustantivo.

Ej.: grande ... gran; bueno ... buen; santo ... san; malo ... mal.

Grados del Adjetivo

Los grados del adjetivo expresan las cualidades de un sustantivo poseidas en unas proporciones distintas.

Ej.: el coche es rápido; el tren es más rápido; el avión es rapidísimo.

Grados de significación del Adjetivo:

Positivo: Indica simplemente la cualidad: conquista prodigiosa.

Comparativo: Establece relación de la cualidad poseída entre dos sustantivos.

FORMAS:

de IGUALDAD: el coche es tan rápido como el tren.

de INFERIORIDAD: el coche es menos rápido que el tren.

de SUPERIORIDAD: el coche es más rápido que el tren.

Superlativo: Expresa la cualidad de un sustantivo poseída en el más alto grado:

Ej.: avión rapidísimo

CLASES:

• ABSOLUTO: Es el que no compara la cualidad con ningun otro objeto

Ej.: avión muy rápido o rapidísimo.

• RELATIVO: Es el que expresa la cualidad de un sustantivo, poseída en el más alto grado, pero comparándola con la de otros:

Ej.: Luis es el más alto de la clase.

Comparativos y Superlativos Irregulares

Positivo Comparativo Superlativo

bueno mejor óptimo

malo peor pésimo

grande mayor máximo

pequeño menor mínimo

alto superior supremo

bajo inferior ínfimo

interno interior íntimo

3.- El Pronombre

El pronombre es la palabra que hace las veces del nombre, es decir, que se pone en

en su lugar para evitar su repetición.

CLASES:

PERSONALES

Singular	Plural
1ª Persona	Yo Me Mi Conmigo	Nosotros, Nosotras Nos Nos
2ª Persona	Tú Te Ti Contigo	Vosotros, Vosotras Vos Vos Os Os
3ª Persona	él, ella, ello le, le, lo se, se	Ellos, Ellas Les Les se se

2) DEMOSTRATIVOS

Masculino	Femenino	Neutro
Singular	Éste Ése Aquél	ésta ésa aquella	Esto Eso Aquello
Plural	Éstos Ésos Aquellos	éstas ésas aquellas	Estos Esos Aquello

3) POSESIVOS

Masculino	Femenino	Neutro
1ª Persona	Mio Mios Nuestro Nuestros	Mia Mias Nuestra Nuestras	(lo) mio (lo) nuestro
2ª Persona	Tuyo Tuyos Vuestro Vuestros	Tuya Tuyas Vuestra Vuestras	(lo) tuyo (lo) vuestro
3ª Persona	Suyo Suyos	Suya Suyas	(lo) suyo

4) REFLEXIVOS

Singular	Plural
1ª Persona	Yo mismo Me	Nosostros mismos Nosotras mismas Nos
2ª Persona	Tú mismo Te	Vosotros mismos Vosotras mismas Os
3ª Persona	Él mismo Ella misma (ello mismo) se	Ellos mismos Ellas mismas (ellos mismos) se

5) RECÍPROCOS

Plural
1ª Persona	(uno a otro: dos) (unos a otros: + de dos) Nos
2ª Persona	(uno a otro: dos) (unos a otros: + de dos) Os
3ª Persona	(uno a otro: dos) (unos a otros: + de dos) Se

6) RELATIVOS

Masculino	Singular: que, el que, cual, el cual, quien, cuyo Plural: que, los que, cuales, los cuales, quienes, cuyos
Femenino	Singular: que, la que, cual, la cual, quien, cuya Plural: que, las que, cuales, las cuales, quienes, cuyas

7) INTERROGATIVOS

Si los pronombres relativos se colocan al comienzo de la frase, sirven entónces para interrogar o preguntar y por eso de denominan INTERROGATIVOS, éstos siempre llevan acento (´) y no tienen antecedente

8) INDEFINIDOS

INDEFINIDOS: Son aquellos que designan las personas, animales o cosas de una Manera vaga, general, sin concretar claramente. Ej.: Algo tiene que comer. (ALGO indica un alimento pero no concreta de Cual se trata) Los más usados son: Para PERSONAS: alguién, nadie, cualquiera, uno. Para COSAS: algo, nada OTROS:
Variables	Invariables
alguno todo uno ninguno cierto cualquiera varios otro quienquiera mucho bastante demasiado poco	alguien nadie algo nada

CONJUGACIÓN ESPAÑOLA (Resumen)

Tiempos Verbales (simples)	HABER	SER
Presente Preterito Imperfecto Preterito Indefinido Futuro Simple Condicional Simple	He había hube habré habría	soy era fuí seré sería

Las tres conjugaciones: AM-AR, TEM-ER, PART-IR

ConjugacionesIndicativo	1ª -AR		2ª -ER		3ª -IR
Presente	-o		-o		-o
Pretérito Imperfecto	-aba		-ía		-ía
Pretérito Indefinido	-é		-í		-í
Futuro Simple	-aré		-eré		-iré
Condicional Simple	-aría		-ería		-iría
ConjugacionesSubjuntivo		1ª -AR		2ª -ER		3ª -IR
Presente		-e		-a		-a
Pretérito Imperfecto		-ara/-ase		-iera/-iese		-iera/-iese
Pretérito Indefinido		---------		-----------		-----------
Futuro Simple		-are		-iere		-iere
Condicional Simple		---------		----------		-----------

Los tiempos compuestos o perfectos que corresponden a los tiempos simples son:

Simples	Compuestos
Presente	Pretérito Perfecto
Pretérito Imperfecto	Pretérito Pluscuampecfecto
Pretérito Indefinido	Pretérito Anterior
Futuro Simple	Futuro Perfecto
Condicional Simple	Condicional Compuesto

• Para formar los tiempos compuestos: se hacen con el correspondiente tiempo simple del verbo HABER + el Participio perfecto o Pasado de verbo que se conjuga:

Pretérito Anterior de amar: Yo hube amado

• Para formar la VOZ PASIVA: se hace con el tiempo correspondiente del verbo SER + el Participio Perfecto o Pasado del verbo que se conjuga:

Pretérito Imperfecto Pasivo de amar: Yo era amado

Correspondencia de tiempos españoles con los tiempos ingleses

Tiempos simples Españoles	Tiempos simples Ingleses	Tiempos compuestos españoles	Tiempos compuestos ingleses
Presente Simple	Simple Present	Pretérito Perfecto	Present Perfect
Pretérito Imperfecto	Simple Past	Pret.Pluscuamperfecto	Past Perfect
Pretérito Indefinito	Simple Past	Pretérito Anterior	Past Perfect
Futuro Simple	Simple Future	Future Perfecto	Future Perfect
Condicional Simple	Simple Conditional	Cond. Compuesto	Perfect Conditional

1.- TABLE OF TENSES - ACTIVE VOICE

Past		Present		Future		Conditional
Simple	I sang	I sing		I shall sing		I should sing
-->[Author:p]Continuous	I was singing	I am singing		I shall be singing		I should be singing
Perfect	I had sung	I have sung		I shall have sung		I should have sung
Perfect Continuous	I had been singing	I have been Singing		I shall have been singin		I should have been singing

Formas no personales del verbo

Simple Infinitive Continuous Infinitive Perfect Infinitive Present Continuous Infintive Present Participle Past Participle Perfect Participle

to sing to be singing to have sung to have been singing singing sung having sung

2.- TABLE OF TENSES - PASSIVE VOICE

Past		Present		Future		Conditional
Simple	I was sung	I am sung		I shall be sung		I should be sung
Continuous	I was being sung	I am being Sung		I shall be being sung		I should be being sung
Perfect	I had been sung	I have been sung		I shall have been sung		I should have been sung
Perfect Continuous	I had been being sung	I have been being sung		I shall have been being sung		I should have been being sung

Formas no personales del verbo

Simple Infinitive Continuous Infinitive Perfect Infinitive Present Continuous Infintive Present Participle Past Participle

To be sung To be being sung To have been sung To have been being sung Being sung Having been sung

Expressing personal opinions In my opinion From my point of view In my view Personally As far as I'm concerned	Expressing contrast However Nevertheless On the one hand On the other hand Although In spite of / Despite
Expressing facts As a matter of fact In fact Actually	Adding information Apart from this / that Moreover / In addition
Giving examples For example / For instance Such as	Rephrasing That is (to say) In other words
Causes and results Because of this / that For this / that reason That's why Therefore As a result of Consequently So...	Modifiers To a certain extent More or less At least Basically Especially In particular Above all
Personal letters Thanks for your letter It was great to hear from you I'm writing to tell you How's it going By the way, how's your sister Well, Middleford isn't very big Anyway, I must stop writing now Write soon and tell me all your news Best wishes.	Writing dialogues Really? You know, it's fast and cheap It doesn't fill you up, do you know what I mean? On the top of all that, it's so fatty To tell you the truth, I love fast food You're joking! Of course not.
Formal letters Dear Sir / Madam I'm writing to you about I look forward to hearing from you Yours faithfully Yours sincerely	Time connectors First of all Next / Then After that While In the meantime All of a sudden Finally In the end

Summarising: In short / In conclusion

On the whole / To sum up

CONJUNCIONES Y CONECTORES DE FRASES

1.- Tipos y usos:

Conjunciones coordinantes: and, or, but

Conectores: however, indeed

Conjunciones subordinantes:

- Temporales

After As long as Before Till When Whenever

As As soon as Since Until While Etc.

• de lugar: where, wherever

• causales: because, since, as

• de finalidad: so that, in order that

• consecutivas: as a result, so, then, so + adjetivo/adverbio + that,

such + nombre + that

• concesivas: although, though, even though

• de manera: as, as if, as though

2.- Significados

2. 1 Relación aditiva

And As well Furthermore Both ... and ... In addition to this And what's more Not only ... but also...

Also Besides Likewise Too Moreover Again As well as

2.2 Relación alternativa

Or, either ... or... Neither ... nor... Whether ... or...

Otherwise Or else Etc.

2.3 Relación contrastiva

But Still Whereas Yet Despite

However Nevertheless While Notwithstanding On the other hand

2.4 Relación de causa-efecto

So Consequently Due to the fact that

Therefore Because Etc.

2.5 Relación de ordenación

• Cronológica: conjunciones temporales

• Lógica: Firstly ..., secondly..., and finally

Comprensión de texto: Respuestas

According to the text... The text mentions... The text says that...

The text states that... The text refers to...

Resumen del contenido del texto: Introducelo diciendo

The text is about... This is the story of... The text deals with...

The author states /suggests/criticizes/explains/points out /lists/highlights/argues/puts forwards...

Preguntas hipotéticas: Respuestas

Where would you like to spend your next few years? I would like to...

Preguntas que solicitan tu opinión: Respuestas

What do you think of...? Do you believe...?

I think that... Well, personally, I feel... I believe... In my opinion... From my point of view...

ASKING ABOUT LANGUAGE

Asking for definitions What does `leather' mean? What's a tracksuit? What's the meaning of `shy'? Do you know the meaning of `garden centre'?	Possible Answers It's a sort of... It's a kind of... It's used to... It's an object/thing ... used to/for...
Asking for explanations How do you say (...) in English? What do they call (...)? How could I say (...) in English? Do you know any other word/expression for (...) How do you spell/write (...)?	Asking for repetition Pardon? Excuse me? Could you repeat it, please? I didn't hear you. Can you say it again? I can't understand you. Can you say it more slowly?

Read and learn this dialogue:

Laura: Richard, please. What does `leather' mean?

Richard: Excuse me?

Laura: What's the meaning of `leather'?

Richard: It's a kind of material made of animal skin. It is used to make shoes, jackets ...

Laura: How do you spell it?

Richard: L-E-A-T-H-E-R.

Laura: Thank you. Just another question. How could I say `I don't feel very well' in other words?

Richard: Well, you can say `I feel down', or `I feel blue'.

Laura: Thanks a lot. You're a really good friend.

ABOUT DIFFERENT FEELINGS AND ATTITUDES

Asking how someone feels Are you all right/OK? Is everything OK? Are you sure you are all right/OK? You're not nervous/worried/unhappy (about)..., are you? Is anything the matter? How do you feel about...? What's wrong? How are you doing?	Saying you are curious Can someone tell me what is going on? I'm interested to know... Can someone tell me about...? I'd like to know more about...
Expressing optimism Everything will be fine. You wait and see. It's all going to be OK. Things will work out fine/all right. I feel quite sure (about)...	Expressing pessimism Mm, I'm not so sure. I doubt that. I'm not at all sure. I don't really believe... There is no way... I'm not too happy about...

Read and learn this dialogue:

John: Hello, Mary! Is everything all right?

Mary: Yeah, I guess

John: Are you sure you are OK? You aren't worried about anything, are you?

Mary: Well, I don't want to bore you with my problems.

John: Please, I'm interested to know what is happening to you.

Mary: I'm not sure my maths teacher like me. In fact, I think he hates me.

John: Why are you saying that? I doubt it. He is a very pleasant man who seems to like everyone. I don't

Really believe he can dislike you.

Mary: Are you sure about that? I took a maths exam I don't think I'm going to pass.

John: You wait and see. It'll all turn out fine, and I'm sure that you will pass.

Mary: I really hope so.

EXPRESSING LIKES AND PREFERENCES

Asking and answering about likes Do you like/enjoy (+ noun or -ing)...? Are you keen on...? What are your feelings about...? I like/enjoy/adore/love/hate/dislike... I'm (not) keen on... I've always liked/hated/loved/enjoyed... I've been mad about... I think ... is great/brilliant/fantastic/fun. There's nothing I like/enjoy more than...

Asking and answering about preferences Do you prefer (+ noun or -ing) to (+ noun or -ing)? We can ... or ..., what do you think? Do you like ... better/more than ...? Which do you prefer ... or ...? I'd rather (+ inf. s/to) than (+ inf. s/to). I like/enjoy ... better/more than ... I much prefer ... to ... ... appeals to me more than ...

Read and learn the following:

Student 1: Do you enjoy jazz festivals?

Student 2: Well, I'm not very keen on jazz.

Student 3: We can go to a concert or to the cinema. What do you prefer?

Student 4: I much prefer listening to music to watching a film.

Student 5: Laura, do you enjoy listening to classical music?

Student 6: There's nothing I enjoy more than listening to classical music.

Student 7: Do you prefer folk music to opera?

Student 8: Not really, I much prefer opera to pop music.

ASKING FOR AND GIVING PERMISSION

Formal Informal

Would it be possible...? Would you mind if...? I wonder if I could...? May I...? Do you mind...? Do you think I could...? Could I...? Can I...?

Would it be possible if I came back home later? Yes, of course. Would you mind if she finishes my work? No, I don't mind it at all. I wonder if I could see your dictionary. Sure./ I'm sorry, but I'm already using it. May I come in? Yes, you may. Do you mind if Arthur comes to the party with us? No, I don't. Please tell him to come. Do you think I could go to the U2 concert tomorrow? I'm afraid you can't. Could I have a ham sandwich? Yes, here you are. Can I go with my sister to the cinema tonight? Yes, you can.

Read these dialogues and find out which expressions are used when you talk to somebody for the first time:

• Amy, let me introduce David López. This is Amy Anderson, the language coordinator.

• Please to meet you Mr López

• How do you do Mrs Anderson?

• Is this your first time in Ireland?

• Yes, it is.

• And what do you think about it?

• (...)

• Hello, Liz. I'm Iris. Your mother talked to you about me, didn't she?

• Yes, she did. Nice to meet you, Iris. Are you enjoying your stay in Dublin?

• Sure, Dublin is a wonderful city. Could you show me around?

• Of course, Let's see. First, we could go to the city centre and then visit Stephen's Park. Then, ...

IDIOMS

An IDIOM is an idiomatic expression. There are many idioms in English and people like using them very much in conversation. They are quite colloquial.

There are idioms related to colours such as to be the black sheep, to be in the red, to feel blue, to have got green fingers, etc. Most of them are body idioms which are related to parts of the body:

Choose the right colour to complete these colour idioms.

She was white/green with envy.

The police caught the thief green/red-handed.

“How are you?”, “I'm in the pink/blue as my holiday starts today.”

When I started driving i was very red/green and I had to learn a lot.

He was white/red in the face with cold.

A blue/white lie is sometimes justified.

Read these situations and choose a body idiom for each one.

1) To turn one's ________ on somebody. 6) To make one's ________ stand on end.

2) To be wet behind the _______. 7) To be all ________ and thumbs

3) To put one's ________ down. 8) To pull somebody's ________.

4) To _________ the music. 9) To be a pain in the ________.

5) To _________ one's way. 10) To pay through the ________.

• You buy something and pay a very high price for it.

• You have done something bad and you are going to be criticised or punished for it.

• You can use this expression when talking about a horror film.

• You say this about a person who can't do anything with his/her hands.

• If you do this to a friend, you don't help him/her when he/she needs it.

• When you go to s disco and there are many people, you do this to be able to move around.

• When a person doesn't have much experience of things and doesn't realised all the dangers of something.

• When you tell someone something that is not true and they believe you, but they will laugh when they realise that it is not true.

• You use this idiom to refer to a person you find very annoying and irritating.

• When you do this, you are firm in your position, you use your authority to prevent something from happening.

Practise the idioms above as in the example:

• I've bought a new CD.

• How much was it?

• £30.

• You paid through the nose, didn't you?

EXPRESSING CERTAINTY, UNCERTAINTY, POSSIBILITY, AND IMPOSSIBILIY

To express you are sure I am (completely) sure that... I know for sure that... I am a hundred per cent sure that... I am positive that...	To express you are not sure I am not really sure... I am not convinced that... I can't say for sure that... I am not certain that...
To say that something is possible or probable That will probably... It's possible/probable that... It's likely that... I bet that... There's a good chance that... Perhaps/Maybe...	To say that something is impossible or improbable It's impossible/not possible/not probable that... That's unlikely... It is very doubtful that... I can't believe that... I don't think that is the case.

Example:

A: I am positive this is a television.

B: I don't think that is the case. Perhaps it is a computer.

APOLOGIZING

Apology Sorry, I'm very sorry. It was my fault. I'm terribly sorry. I apology for/about... Please, accept my apologies (for...) That was very foolish/careless of me, I'm afraid.

Excuse Excuse me for... Please, forgive me for... I'm afraid...

Responses That's all right/OK. Don't worry. Forget it. Not at all. It doesn't matter at all. Please, think nothing of it. It's perfectly all right. There's no reason to apologise (for)...

Make dialogues for these situations using varied structures.

Apologise to a friend for arriving late for his party.

Apologise to your brother/sister for forgetting his/her birthday.

Apologise to your parents for coming back home late. Give an excuse.

You are riding your bike. A person step off the pavement. You have to stop fast in order to avoid hitting him/her. You are angry. The other person is frightened.

You are a customer of a hostel and the room is dirty and the bed hasn't got any sheets. Your partner is the receptionist who tries to apologise.

COMMUNICATING

To maintain a conversation with an interlocutor is not easy. Sometimes, while you are talking, you may need some time to think of what you are going to say next. In these cases, you do not usually stop the conversation, but you use some expressions such as the following:

Taking some time to think Err, let's see/Let me see... Um, let me think/Let's think... Well, mm, you se... (...), you know, (...) (...), I mean, (...) Oh, wait a second...

If you want to change topics, that is, what the conversation is about, you can say expressions like these:

Changing topics during a conversation By the way, Oh, before I forget, ... While I remember, ... Oh, I almost forgot to tell you...

Finally, when you have been talking for a while and want to finish your intervention, you can use expressions like these ones:

Finish one's intervention In short, ... To sum up, ... Briefly, ... In conclusion, ... The point I'm trying to make is...

Read this dialogue:

Alex: So, what is it you wanted to say before?

Mary: Let's see, what I wanted to say is that, you know, the working class conditions of factory workers have

changed a lot over the years.

Alex: But, that has been mentioned before, I mean, that is not the reason why we are here today.

Mary: I think you didn't understand very well what I meant, mm, you see, our salary, job safety and so on,

have improved.

Maggie: By the way, I would like to know if we are going to fight for a pay rise this year.

Alex: Why not? I have always been in favour of yearly pay rise.

Mary: Oh, I almost forgot to tell you, the manager called this morning to tell me he wanted to talk to us about

something very important.

Alex and Maggie: And you tell us now! In conclusion, we have been wasting our time, he probably wants to

talk to us about all this.

Mary: But I thought...

DEBATING

A debate is a conversation among several people who may have different opinions on a topic. In a debate there is a moderator, a neutral person who does not show his/her opinion on the topic, and the partcipants who show their point of view. The moderator's job is to set the times for the participants to talk.

Rules for debating Select people who have different opinions. Be well-informed on the topic. Respect the turns and the time. Follow the debate line. Respect other people's opinions.

Stating the facts For example, ... As we know, ... On the issue of... My point is...	Beginnings I'd like to start by saying that... I must say...
Disagreeing I see what you mean, but... I'm afraid I don't agree... That argument ignores... That's true, but... I'm not sure... This is nonsense.	Offering solutions It'd be much better... Why don't we...? I think we should...

Read this debate's sample:

Presenter: Good afternoon, everybody. I'm Arthur Newton. It's seven o'clock and this is another edition of Let's talk about. The subject of today's discussion is: extraterrestrial life. In the studio we have to guests to open the debate. If you want to take part, call 01-66-77-55. Our first guest is AB.

AB: my point is...

Presenter: thank you. Over to you, JJ

JJ: I completely disagree. That argument ignores...

Presenter: Thanks, so now it's over to you, the viewers. Our first caller is...

FUNCTIONS

Asking for advice I've got a small problem... I'm not sure what to do... Could you give some advice? Do you think I should/ought to...? What should I do? What would you advise me to do? What would you recommend?

Giving advice I (don't) think you should... I (don't) think you ought to... If I were you, I would... You'd better... You could... Why don't you....

Apologizing I'm really very sorry about... It was my fault. Sorry about.... How silly of me.

Accepting That's all right. Don't worry. That's OK. Forget it.

Agreeing I quite agree with you I think you are right. You're are absolutely right. That's absolutely true. I couldn't agree with you more! Right! Disagreeing Do you really think so? I'm sorry, but I don't agree (with...) I think that's nonsense. You can't be serious.

Partially agreeing I see what you mean, but... Yes, but on the other hand... I can see that, but... I suppose you could be right, but... Expressing boredom I don't think that's very interesting How boring! *It turns me off! *So what?

Checking that someone has understood you Do you see what I mean? Do you understand? Do you see? *OK? *Do you get it?

Saying something in a different way I mean... What I mean is... What I'm trying to say is...

Expressing excitement How exciting! That's fantastic!

Saying goodbye Excuse a moment. I'm afraid I really must go now. Bye for now. See you later

Interrupting Sorry to interrupt you, but... May I interrupt you for a second? Hold on a moment!

Introducing yourself Answer How do you do? My name's is... How do you do? I'm... Hello. I'm... Hello. My name's.... *Hi Introducing others This is John How do you do? How do you do? Please to meet you. Hi, nice to meet you. Hello, John.

Invitations Would you like to...? What about...? How about...? Do you fancy... -ing? Why don't you....?

Accepting Thank you very much. That's very kind of you. That would be very nice. Lovely!

Declining Thank you very much, but... I wish I could, but... I'd love to, but... I'm afraid I can't, because...

Asking about languages How do you say...? When do we use...? How do you pronounce...? What does... mean? How do you spell...? What's the meaning of...? Do you say... or ...? What's another word for...? Is this right?

Presenting a gift Thanking Please accept this... That's extremely kind of you. Allow me to present you with... I'm extremely grateful. It gives me great pleasure to present... I appreciate... very much.

Expressing regret I wish I had / hadn't (done...) I'm sorry I (did...) I should / shouldn't have (done...) What a pity I (did...) If only I had / hadn't (done...) How silly of me (to do...)

Expressing pleasure I'm so glad... Thank goodness... Isn't it wonderful that...

Expressing relief What a relief! Thank goodness for that!

Asking for an opinion What do you think of...? How do you feel about...? What's your opinion of...?

Giving an opinion I think... I believe... I'd say... Personally, I feel... In my opinion, ... It seems to me that... As far as I'm concerned,...

Saying you are not sure I'm not really sure. I don't think...

Saying you don't know I'm afraid I don't know very much about... I've no idea. I wish I knew.

Asking someone to repeat Sorry? What did you say? Could you repeat that pleae? I didn't quite catch that. *What?

Expressing request Granting Refusing Could you...? Yes, of course I'm afraid not. Would you...? Will you...? Do you think you could...? Would you mind... -ing? Not, not at all. I'd rather not

Suggesting Shall we...? Let's... We could... Why don't we...? Why not...? I think we should... I suggest that we... I suggest (possessive) -ing... How about... -ing? What about... -ing?

Agreeing with suggestions That's a good idea. What a good idea! That sounds like a very good idea. Yes, why not! Yes, let's.

Disagreeing with suggestions I don't think that's a very good idea. That doesn't sound like a very good idea to me. No, don't let's.

SUBJECTS (note the stress)	EASILY CONFUSED WORDS
Latin mathematics (maths) science physics chemistry biology botany zoology geography history religious education (RE) physical education (PE)	Course Career Marks Qualifications Qualities Subjects Degree Lecture

SOME EXPRESSIONS

Gets my goat, he wouldn't say “Boo!” to a goose mutton dressed as lamb pulls your socks up

Personality: WHAT'S HE/SHE LIKE?

self-confident attractive hard-working good at helpful original witty, clever optimistic organised, efficient tidy conservative generous cheerful, good-humoured sympathetic, understanding

shy, reserved ugly lazy, a shirker, a tease bad at unhelpful unoriginal dull pessimistic disorganised, inefficient untidy adventurous mean bad-tempered unsympathetic

Appearance: WHAT DOES HE/SHE LOOK LIKE?

He	He/She	She
broad-shoulder bald Handsome	tall, average height well built of medium build fat, thin, slim fair, dark, red-haired weather-beaten suntanned pale wide, small, generous mouth long, hooked, broad, snub nose freckles wrinkles good-looking	a nice figure delicately built blonde, brunette a good complexion pretty, beautiful

CLOTHES	ACCESORIES	MATERIALS	VERBS
Skirt Trousers Jeans Shirt Blouse Cardigan Twinset Sweater Pullover Waistcoat Tie bow-tie jacket suit pyjamas nightdress tights slippers	bracelet earrings necklace chain brooch ring pearls belt handbag	Silk Satin Cotton Tweed Velvet Linen Wool Lace	get dressed undressed ready changed wear put on a coat etc. take off try something on sit fit match go with shorten lengthen a dress take in trousers let out etc.

IN FASHION/OUT OF FASHION

Mini Maxi Midi skirt Full Pleated Straight

Flared bell-bottom trousers narrow

SCHOOL SYSTEM	HIGHER OR FURTHER EDUCATION	VERBS
Playgroup Playschool Kindergarten Compulsory education Junior Primary Comprehensive secondary school grammar public school	University Polytechnic Teacher Training College Trade School Night School evening classes day release	sit take an exam pass / fail do a course follow pay attention to apply for a place at got to University lectures get a first class degree second do research (into)

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LAS ORACIONES y SUS CLASES

ORACIONES SIMPLES

Por el tono del verbo

Copulativas

Transitivas

Activas

Intransitivas

Reflexivas

Pasivas

Recíprocas

Impersonales

Enunciativas

Interrogativas

Deliberativas

Exhortativas

Por la índole del verbo

ORACIONES COMPUESTAS

Copulativas

Disyuntivas

COORDINADAS Distributivas

Adversativa

Ilativa

YUXTAPUESTAS (Sin conjunción)

Sujeto

Complemento Directo

SUSTANTIVAS Complemento Indirecto

(COMPLETIVAS) Complem. Circunstancial

Complem. Nominal

Aposición

ADJETIVAS o

SUBORDINADAS de RELATIVO (Hacen el oficio de un adjetivo)

Finales

Concesivas

Lugar

ADVERBIALES Modales (modo)

Temporales (tiempo)

Causales (causa)

Consecutivas

Condicionales