The physical substance of the human organism, composed of living cells and extracellular materials and organized into tissues, organs, and systems. A brief treatment of the human body follows. For a depiction of the gross anatomy of the human male and female.

For detailed coverage of the body's biochemical constituents, see Biochemical Components of Organisms. For information on the structure and function of the cells that constitute the body, see Cells. For detailed discussions of specific tissues, organs, and systems, see Blood; Circulation and Circulatory Systems; Digestion and Digestive Systems; Endocrine Systems; Excretion and Excretory Systems; Integumentary Systems; Muscles and Muscle Systems; Nerves and Nervous Systems; Reproduction and Reproductive Systems; Respiration and Respiratory Systems; Sensory Reception; Supportive and Connective Tissues. For a description of how the body develops, from conception through old age, see Growth and Development, Biological.

For example, see abdominal cavity; adrenal gland; aorta; bone; brain; ear; eye; heart; kidney; large intestine; lung; nose; ovary; pancreas; pituitary gland; small intestine; spinal cord; spleen; stomach; testis; thymus; thyroid gland; tooth; uterus; vertebral column.

Human beings are, of course, animals—more particularly, members of the order Mammalia in the subphylum Vertebrata of the phylum Chordata. Like all chordates, the human animal has a bilaterally symmetrical body that is characterized at some point during its development by a dorsal supporting rod (the notochord), gill slits in the region of the pharynx, and a hollow dorsal nerve cord.

Of these features, the first two are present only during the embryonic stage in the human; the notochord is replaced by the vertebral column, and the pharyngeal gill slits are lost completely. The dorsal nerve cord is the spinal cord in human beings; it remains throughout life.

Characteristic of the vertebrate form, the human body has an internal skeleton that includes a backbone of vertebrae. Typical of mammalian structure, the human body shows such characteristics as hair, mammary glands, and highly developed sense organs.

Beyond these similarities, however, lie some profound differences. Among the mammals, only human beings have a predominantly two-legged (bipedal) posture, a fact that has greatly modified the general mammalian body plan. (Even the kangaroo, which hops on two legs when moving rapidly, walks on four legs and uses its tail as a "third leg" when standing.)

Moreover, the human brain, particularly that part called the neocortex, is far and away the most highly developed in the animal kingdom. As intelligent as are many other mammals—such as chimpanzees and dolphins—none have achieved the intellectual status of the human species. Chemical composition of the body. Chemically, the human body consists mainly of water and of organic compounds—i.e., lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

Water is found in the extracellular fluids of the body (the blood plasma, the lymph, and the interstitial fluid) and within the cells themselves. It serves as a solvent without which the chemistry of life could not take place. The human body is about 60 percent water by weight. Lipids—chiefly fats, phospholipids, and steroids—are major structural components of the human body. Fats provide an energy reserve for the body, and fat pads also serve as insulation and shock absorbers. Phospholipids and the steroid compound cholesterol are major components of the membrane that surrounds each cell. Proteins also serve as a major structural component of the body. Like lipids, proteins are an important constituent of the cell membrane.

In addition, such extracellular materials as hair and nails are composed of protein. So also is collagen, the fibrous, elastic material that makes up much of the body's skin, bones, tendons, and ligaments. Proteins also perform numerous functional roles in the body. Particularly important are those cellular proteins called enzymes, which catalyze the chemical reactions necessary for life. Carbohydrates are present in the human body largely as fuels, either as simple sugars circulating through the bloodstream or as glycogen, a storage compound found in the liver and the muscles. Small amounts of carbohydrates also occur in cell membranes, but, in contrast to plants and many invertebrate animals, humans have little structural carbohydrate in their bodies. Nucleic acids make up the genetic materials of the body. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) carries the body's hereditary master code, the instructions according to which each cell operates. It is DNA, passed from parents to offspring, that dictates the inherited characteristics of each human being. Ribonucleic acid (RNA), of which there are several types, helps carry out the instructions encoded in the DNA.

Along with water and organic compounds, the body's constituents include various inorganic minerals. Chief among these are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, magnesium, and iron. Calcium and phosphorus, combined as calcium-phosphate crystals, form a large part of the body's bones. Calcium is also present as ions in the blood and interstitial fluid, as is sodium. Ions of phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium, on the other hand, are abundant within the intercellular fluid. All of these ions play vital roles in the body's metabolic processes. Iron is present mainly as part of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment of the red blood cells.

Other mineral constituents of the body, found in minute but necessary concentrations, include cobalt, copper, iodine, manganese, and zinc. Organization of the body. The cell is the basic living unit of the human body—indeed, of all organisms.

The human body consists of more than 75 trillion cells, each capable of growth, metabolism, response to stimuli, and, with some exceptions, reproduction. Although there are some 200 different types of cells in the body, these can be grouped into four basic classes.

These four basic cell types, together with their extracellular materials, form the fundamental tissues of the human body:

The next level of organization in the body is that of the organ. An organ is a group of tissues that constitutes a distinct structural and functional unit. Thus, the heart is an organ composed of all four tissues, whose function is to pump blood throughout the body. Of course, the heart does not function in isolation; it is part of a system composed of blood and blood vessels as well. The highest level of body organization, then, is that of the organ system. The body includes nine major organ systems, each composed of various organs and tissues that work together as a functional unit.

The chief constituents and prime functions of each system are summarized below.

(9) The reproductive system, composed of the male or female sex organs, enables reproduction and thereby ensures the continuation of the species.

Basic form and development. In general structure, the human body follows a plan that can be described as a cylinder enclosing two tubes and a rod. This body plan is most clearly evident in the embryo; by birth, the plan is apparent only in the trunk region—i.e., in the thorax and abdomen.

The body wall forms the cylinder. The two tubes are the ventrally located alimentary canal (i.e., the digestive tract) and the dorsally located neural tube (i.e., the spinal cord). Between the tubes lies the rod—the notochord in the embryo, which becomes the vertebral column prior to birth. (The terms dorsal and ventral refer respectively to the back and the front, or belly, sides of an animal.) Within the embryo, the essential body parts are:

The mesoderm constitutes a considerable pad of tissue on each side of the embryo, extending all the way from the back to the front sides of the body wall. It is hollow, for a cleftlike space appears in it on each side.

These are the right and left body cavities. In the dorsal part of the body they are temporary; in the ventral part they become permanent, forming the two pleural cavities, which house the lungs; the peritoneal cavity, which contains the abdominal organs; and the pericardial cavity, which encloses the heart. The dorsal part of the mesoderm becomes separated from the ventral mesoderm and divides itself into serial parts like a row of blocks, 31 on each side.

These mesodermal segments grow in all directions toward the epidermal membrane. They form bones, muscles, and the deeper, leathery part of the skin. Dorsally they form bony arches protecting the spinal cord, and ventrally the ribs protecting the alimentary canal and heart. Thus they form the body wall and the limbs—much the weightier part of the body.

They give the segmental character to the body wall in neck and trunk, and, following their lead, the spinal cord becomes correspondingly segmented. The ventral mesoderm is not so extensive; it remains near the alimentary tube and becomes the continuous muscle layer of the stomach and intestine. It also forms the lining of the body cavities, the smooth, shining, slippery pleura and peritoneum.

The mesenchyme forms blood and lymph vessels, the heart, and the loose cells of connective tissues. The neural tube itself is formed from the ectoderm at a very early stage. Anteriorly (i.e., toward the head) it extends above the open end of the cylinder and is enlarged to form the brain. It is not in immediate contact with the epidermis, for the dorsal mesoderm grows up around it and around the roots of the cranial nerves as a covering, separating the brain from the epidermis.

Posteriorly the neural tube terminates in the adult opposite the first lumbar vertebra. If the cylindrical body wall is followed headward, it is found to terminate ventrally as the tongue, dorsally in the skull around the brain, ears, and eyes. There is a considerable interval between eyes and tongue.

This is occupied partly by a deep depression of the epidermis between them, which dips in to join the alimentary tube (lining of the mouth). Posteriorly the ventral body wall joins the dorsal at the tailbone (coccyx), thus terminating the body cavities. Headward, the alimentary tube extends up in front of the notochord and projects above the upper part of the body wall (tongue) and in front of and below the brain to join the epidermal depression.

From the epidermal depression are formed the teeth and most of the mouth lining; from the upper end of the alimentary canal are formed the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs. The alimentary canal at its tail end splits longitudinally into two tubes—an anterior and a posterior. The anterior tube becomes the bladder, urethra, and, in the female, the lining of the vagina, where it joins a depression of the ectoderm.

The posterior (dorsal) tube becomes the rectum and ends just in front of the coccyx by joining another ectodermal depression (the anus). Changes incident to old age. The human body undergoes various changes as a result of aging. Because of the lengthening life expectancy, an increasing proportion of the population falls into the group past middle life.

The imprints of time on human bodies do not, however, come at the same age in every individual; some persons are as capable at age 75 as others at age 55. The skin is one of the most accurate registers of the years. The soft, smooth velvet of infancy becomes gradually the hard, wrinkled, seared parchment of old age. The head hair grays and falls out, though other hairs flourish and increase. Wounds take longer to heal; some replacements take five times as long at 60 as at 10 years of age. Sensory fibres in spinal nerves become fewer in number; the ganglion cells become pigmented and some of them die. In the auditory apparatus some nerve cells and fibres are lost, and the ability to hear high notes diminishes. In the eye the lens loses its elasticity.

The brain is somewhat smaller after the age of 40 and shrinks markedly after age 75, especially in the frontal and occipital lobes. This shrinkage is not, however, correlated with declines in mental capacity. Intellectual declines in the elderly are the consequence of underlying disease conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease or cerebrovascular disease.

The bones become lighter and more brittle; they are friable and indentable, and destruction overtakes new formation. They give up some of their calcium, which increases in arteries and cartilage, in ligaments, and in the tendinous attachment of muscles. In joints the cartilage covering the ends of bone becomes thinner and sometimes disappears in spots, so bone meets bone directly and the old joints creak. Muscular strength decreases but with marked individual variablity.

Elastic tissue, like old rubber, loses its elasticity. This is the one tissue in the body that never rests. In the skin it makes cuts gape open, in the arteries it resists the ever-present blood pressure, and in the connective tissues it restores the resting position after every movement.

It is therefore apt to wear out early—in some people at age 45; in others it may last until the age of 90. In the lungs the air sacs (alveoli) get bigger because the elastic tissue in their walls degenerates, and the lungs increase in size (emphysema of old age).

Elastic tissue is at its best at 25 years of age. When lost in old age, it is not repaired. The arteries become fibrous and sclerosed. Because of decreasing elasticity, they tend to become rigid tubes. Fatty spots, which appear in their lining even in youth, are always present in old age.

Lymphoid tissue undergoes a general shrinkage after middle age. Repairs of parts are made more slowly if at all and sometimes are made by tissue different from the original (metaplasia).

Pigment appears in increasing amounts in the skin, the heart muscle, liver, kidney, and nerve ganglia and in the cells of the central nervous system. Cells have less energy for division. Young tissues change and adapt themselves to changing conditions much more readily than do old fully differentiated tissues, and, thus, the elderly lose a factor of safety. In vitro experiments indicate that the body's cells are programmed to undergo a finite number of divisions, after which time they lose their reproductive capacity.

Thus, the potential longevity of the human body—about 100 years—seems to be encoded within the very cells of the body.

Change incident to environmental factors.

Although the basic form of the human body was established in man's anthropoid ancestors, evolutionary adaptations to different environments are apparent among various human populations. For example, physical adaptations in human beings are seen in response to extreme cold, humid heat, and high altitudes. Extreme cold favours short, round persons with short arms and legs, flat faces with fat pads over the sinuses, narrow noses, and a heavier than average layer of body fat.

These adaptations provide minimum surface area in relation to body mass for minimum heat loss, minimum heat loss in the extremities (which allows manual dexterity during exposure to cold and guards against frostbite), and protection of the lungs and base of the brain against cold air in the nasal passages. In hot climates the problem is not in maintaining body heat but in dissipating it.

Ordinarily the body rids itself of excess heat by sweating. In conditions of humid heat, however, the humidity of the surrounding air prevents the evaporation of perspiration to some extent, and overheating may result. Hence, the heat-adapted person in humid climates is characteristically tall and thin, so that he has maximum surface area for heat radiation. He has little body fat; often a wide nose, since warming of the air in the nasal passages is not desirable; and, usually, dark skin, which shields him from harmful solar radiation. High altitudes demand a degree of cold adaptation plus adaptation for low air pressure and the consequent low oxygen.

This adaptation is accomplished by an increase in lung tissue generally. Despite the fact that the general shape and size of the body and its parts are determined by heredity, the body can undergo some modifications in response to present conditions.

Thus, a person who moves from a home at sea level to one at mountain altitudes will experience an increase in the number of red blood cells; this increase helps compensate for the lower oxygen levels of his new environment. Similarly, a light-skinned individual who moves to a hot tropical region will develop increased pigmentation in his skin.

In such situations, the resultant form is seldom perfect for the new conditions, but it is adapted to present needs well enough to maintain life with the least waste of energy.

Esqueleto

Musculatura

Aparato respiratorio

Aparato circulatorio

Sistema nervioso

Aparato digestivo

Sistema endocrino

Aparato urinario

HUMAN BODY

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JOSE MANUEL SOTO HIDALGO